Petra (Arabic: ٱلْبَتْراء, romanized: Al-Batrāʾ; Ancient Greek: Πέτρα, meaning "Rock") was originally called Raqmu by its people (Nabataean Aramaic: 𐢛𐢚𐢒 or 𐢛𐢚𐢓𐢈, *Raqēmō). It is an ancient city and archaeological site in southern Jordan. Petra is famous for its rock-cut buildings and water systems. It is called the "Rose City" because the sandstone used to build it has a pinkish color. Petra is one of the New 7 Wonders of the World and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

People have lived near Petra since about 7000 BC. In the 4th century BC, the Nabataeans, a group of nomadic Arab people, settled there. Petra became the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom in the 2nd century BC. The Nabataeans used Petra's location near important trade routes for incense to make it a major trading center, which brought them wealth. Unlike their enemies, the Nabataeans were used to living in dry desert areas, which helped them protect their kingdom. They were skilled in farming, carving stone, and collecting rainwater.

Petra grew in importance during the 1st century AD. A structure called Al-Khazneh, possibly the tomb of Nabataean king Aretas IV, was built during this time. Petra's population reached about 20,000 people. In 106 AD, the Romans took control of Petra and renamed the region Arabia Petraea. Petra's importance decreased when sea trade routes became more common. An earthquake in 363 AD damaged many buildings. During the Byzantine era, some Christian churches were built, but the city continued to decline. By the early Islamic period, Petra was mostly abandoned, except for a few nomads. It remained unknown to the Western world until 1812, when Swiss traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt rediscovered it.

UNESCO has called Petra "one of the most precious cultural properties of human heritage." Petra represents Jordan and is its most-visited tourist attraction. Each year, nearly a million visitors come to see it.

History

Around 7000 BC, early farmers lived in Beidha, a Pre-Pottery Neolithic settlement near Petra. Petra is mentioned in ancient Egyptian records and letters from the Amarna period as Pel, Sela, or Seir.

The Iron Age lasted from 1200 to 600 BC. During this time, the Petra area was home to the Edomites. The mountainous landscape of Petra helped the Edomites collect and store water, which made the area a key place for trade. Merchants often stopped there to exchange goods like wine, olive oil, and wood.

At first, the Edomites lived alongside nomadic groups, but the nomads eventually left. The Edomites remained and influenced Petra before the Nabataeans arrived. Some stories say 10,000 men were pushed off a mountain called Umm el-Biyara, but scholars debate whether this event truly happened.

Archaeological findings show that the Edomite settlement on Umm el-Biyara was built no earlier than the 7th century BC.

The Nabataeans were one of many nomadic tribes in the Arabian Desert who moved with their herds to find water and pasture. While some believed the Nabataeans had Aramean roots, modern evidence suggests they were a northern Arabian tribe. The Nabataeans called Petra Raqēmō, which appears in inscriptions as rqmw or rqm.

Josephus, a Jewish historian who lived around 37–100 AD, wrote that the region was once inhabited by the Midianites during the time of Moses. He noted that Petra, known as Rekem, was a major city in the Arabian region. The name Rekeme may have come from the Nabataean word for "to mark" or "to decorate," possibly referring to Petra’s carved rock facades. In 1964, workers found ancient inscriptions in Nabataean script near Petra, including one for a man named Petraios who was born in Raqmu (Rekem) and buried in Garshu (Jerash).

An old theory suggested Petra might be the same place called Sela in the Hebrew Bible. However, the word Sela simply means "rock" in Hebrew and may not refer to a specific city. Petra may have been part of the Edomite nation.

Diodorus Siculus described the Nabataeans as a nomadic group who believed that people with possessions could be controlled by those in power. This changed over time. Some researchers thought an expedition by Antigonus against the Nabataeans in 312 BC might relate to Petra, but the Greek word "petra" (rock) likely referred to a natural fortress, not a city.

In 106 AD, when Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus was governor of Roman Syria, the area controlled by Petra was absorbed into the Roman Empire as part of Arabia Petraea. Petra’s native rulers ended, but the city continued to grow under Roman rule. The Petra Roman Road was built around this time. A century later, during the reign of Emperor Severus Alexander, Petra reached its peak of prosperity, but coin production stopped, possibly due to a sudden disaster like an invasion by the Sasanian Empire.

As Palmyra became an important trade center, Petra’s influence declined. However, Petra remained a religious site, and another Roman road was built there. Epiphanius of Salamis wrote that a festival honoring the virgin Khaabou and her son Dushara was held in Petra on December 25. Dushara and al-Uzza were major gods in Petra, along with other deities like Allat and Manat.

Between 111 and 114 AD, Emperor Trajan built the Via Traiana Nova, a road connecting the Syrian border to the Red Sea through Petra. This route revived trade between Arabia, Syria, and the Mediterranean. In 125 AD, one of Emperor Hadrian’s officials left marks in Petra, recorded in documents found at the Dead Sea. Hadrian visited Petra in 130 AD and renamed it Hadriānī Petra Metropolis, a name found on his coins. His visit did not lead to major development in Petra, unlike in Jerash. The governor of the province, Sextius Florentinus, built a large tomb near the al-Hubta (King’s Wall) tombs, which were usually reserved for royalty during the Nabataean period.

Roman emperors continued to value Petra in the 3rd century. An inscription to Liber Pater, a god honored by Emperor Septimius Severus, was found near the Qasr al-Bint temple. Nabataean tombs contained coins with Severus’s image and pottery from his reign. Emperor Elagabalus declared Petra a Roman colony in the late 3rd century. The area from Petra to Wadi Mujib, the Negev, and the Sinai Peninsula was added to the province of Palaestina Salutaris. The Madaba Map, created during Emperor Justinian I’s reign, does not include Petra.

Petra declined under Roman rule because sea-based trade routes changed. In 363 AD, an earthquake damaged many buildings and broke Petra’s water system. Petra became the capital of the Byzantine province of Palaestina III, and many churches from the Byzantine period were found there. In one church, 140 papyri were discovered, showing that Petra was still active in the 6th century. The Byzantine Church is an example of large-scale Byzantine architecture in Petra.

The last mention of Petra as a Byzantine city appears in the writings of John Moschus in

Layout

Petra is located next to the mountain of Jabal Al-Madbah, in a basin surrounded by mountains that form part of the Arabah valley, which runs from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba.

Excavations show that the Nabataeans controlled water to help the desert city grow, creating an artificial oasis. The area is visited by flash floods, but archaeological evidence shows the Nabataeans used dams, cisterns, and water conduits to manage these floods. These methods stored water for long periods of drought and allowed the city to thrive through trade.

In ancient times, Petra might have been reached from the south via a path across the plain of Petra, around Jabal Haroun ("Aaron's Mountain"), the location of the Tomb of Aaron, believed to be the burial place of Aaron, brother of Moses. Another route may have been from the high plateau to the north. Today, most visitors approach Petra from the east. The impressive eastern entrance leads steeply down through a dark, narrow gorge, called the Siq ("shaft"), a natural geological feature formed from a deep split in the sandstone rocks and serving as a waterway flowing into Wadi Musa.

Petra is known for its Hellenistic architecture. The facades of tombs in Petra are often in Hellenistic style, showing the many cultures the Nabataeans traded with, all influenced by Greek culture. Most tombs contain small burial niches carved into the stone.

The best example of Hellenistic style is the Treasury, which is 24 meters (79 feet) wide and 37 meters (121 feet) tall, resembling the architecture of Alexandria. The facade has a broken pediment with a central tholos inside, and two obelisks appear to form into the rock at the top. Near the bottom of the Treasury are the twin Greek gods Castor and Pollux, who protect travelers. Near the top, two victories stand on each side of a female figure on the tholos, believed to be Isis-Tyche, the Egyptian and Greek goddesses of good fortune.

Another example of Hellenistic architecture is the Monastery, which is 45 meters (148 feet) tall and 50 meters (160 feet) wide. It is Petra's largest monument, carved into the rock face. The facade has a broken pediment and a central tholos, similar to the Treasury. The Monastery shows more Nabataean style while incorporating Greek elements. Its only light comes from an entrance 8 meters (26 feet) high. A large, flattened area outside the Monastery was used for worship. In the Byzantine period, this was a Christian site, and it is now a holy place for pilgrims.

At the end of the narrow gorge, the Siq, stands Petra's most elaborate ruin, known as Al-Khazneh ("the Treasury"), carved into the sandstone cliff. Though well-preserved, the structure's face has hundreds of bullet holes made by local Bedouin tribes who hoped to find riches once rumored to be hidden inside.

Near the Treasury, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr, is a massive theatre positioned to offer a view of many tombs. The theatre was carved into the hillside and into several tombs during construction. Rectangular gaps in the seating remain visible. Rose-colored mountain walls surround the theatre on three sides, divided by deep fissures and lined with rock knobs shaped like towers. The theatre could hold about 8,500 people. Audiences attended poetry readings, dramas, and gladiator fights, though gladiator fights were dangerous due to the high death rate. The theatre suffered damage from the 363 Galilee earthquake.

The Petra Pool and Garden Complex includes a large swimming pool, an island-pavilion, and a complex water system. Originally thought to be a market, excavations show it was a garden.

Ahead of the Petra Pool and Garden Complex lies the Colonnaded Street, one of Petra's few man-made structures. A semi-circular nymphaeum once stood here but was destroyed by flash flooding. The street once held Petra's only tree, symbolizing peace. After the Romans took control, the street was narrowed, and 72 columns were added to each side.

The High Place of Sacrifice is located on Jebel Madbah Mountain. The hike to this site begins near Petra's theatre and includes about 800 steps. Common sacrifices included libation and animal offerings, such as an annual goat sacrifice, due to the belief that the tomb of Prophet Aaron is in Petra. Other rituals included burning frankincense.

The Royal Tombs of Petra follow the Nabataean version of Hellenistic architecture, though their facades have worn from natural decay. One tomb, the Palace Tomb, is believed to be the tomb of Petra's kings. The Corinthian Tomb, next to the Palace Tomb, shares the same Hellenistic style as the Treasury. The Silk Tomb and Urn Tomb are other Royal Tombs. The Urn Tomb has a large yard in front and was turned into a church in 446 AD after Christianity spread.

In 2016, archaeologists discovered a large, previously unknown structure using satellite imagery and drones. Dated to about 150 BC, the structure is located outside Petra's main area, at the foot of Jabal an-Nmayr, 0.5 miles (0.8 km) south of the city center. It faces east, away from the city, and has no visible connection to it. The structure includes a massive platform, 184 by 161 feet (56 by 49 meters), with

Geostrategic importance

Pliny the Elder and other writers identify Petra as the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom and the centre of their caravan trade. Enclosed by towering rocks and watered by a perennial stream, Petra not only had the advantages of a fortress but also controlled the main commercial routes that passed through it to Gaza in the west, to Bosra and Damascus in the north, to Aqaba and Leuce Come on the Red Sea, and across the desert to the Persian Gulf.

Religious importance

The Nabataeans worshipped Arab gods and goddesses before the rise of Islam, as well as some of their kings who were later honored as deities. One such king, Obodas I, was worshipped as a god after he died in 85 BC. Dushara was the main male god, and he was often shown with three female deities: Al-‘Uzzā, Allat, and Manāt. Many rock carvings in Petra depict these gods and goddesses. New discoveries suggest that the religious beliefs of the Nabataeans and Edomites were closely connected to the relationship between the Earth and the Sun, as seen in the alignment of Petra’s buildings with sunrise and sunset during equinoxes and solstices.

The Monastery, Petra’s largest structure, was built in the 1st century BC. It was dedicated to Obodas I and is thought to have been a place where people gathered to honor him as a god. This information is written on the remains of the Monastery, which is the Arabic translation of "Ad Deir."

The Temple of the Winged Lions is a large temple built during the reign of King Aretas IV (9 BC–40 AD). It is located in Petra’s Sacred Quarter, an area at the end of Petra’s main Colonnaded Street. This area includes two major temples: the Qasr al-Bint and the Temple of the Winged Lions, which is on the northern side of Wadi Musa.

Christianity arrived in Petra during the 4th century AD, about 500 years after Petra became a major trade center. The city gradually converted to Christianity during the 4th century and possibly into the early 5th century. This change began in 330 AD when Emperor Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, ruled the Roman Empire. With his co-ruler Licinius, he issued a law that allowed Christians to practice their faith without fear of persecution. A bishop named Asterius is mentioned by Athanasius as the leader of Petra’s Christian community. At least one tomb, now called the "Urn Tomb," was used as a church. A red-painted inscription on the tomb records its dedication during the time of Bishop Jason in 447 AD.

After the Muslim conquest of 629–632 AD, Christianity in Petra, like much of Arabia, was replaced by Islam.

Following the First Crusade, part of Transjordan, including Petra, was taken over by King Baldwin I of Jerusalem. This area became part of the second fief of the barony of Krak, known as Château de la Valée de Moyse or Sela. The Franks controlled Petra until 1189. Today, Petra remains a titular see of the Catholic Church, with the title Archbishop of Petra.

According to tradition, Petra is the place where Moses struck a rock with his staff, causing water to flow, and where his brother Aaron is buried on Mount Hor, known in Arabic as Jabal Haroun. This belief dates back to at least the time of Josephus. A church built on the mountain in the 5th century became a center for pilgrims and was called "the House of High Priest Aaron" in a document from 573 AD. Wadi Musa, or the "Wadi of Moses," is the Arabic name for the narrow valley where Petra is located.

A shrine honoring Moses’ sister Miriam was still shown to pilgrims in the 4th century, as recorded by Jerome, but its exact location is unknown today.

Climate

Petra has a partly dry climate. Most of the rain falls during the winter months. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification system labels this climate as BSk. The average temperature in Petra each year is 15.5 °C (59.9 °F). Each year, about 193 mm (7.60 in) of rainfall occurs in the area.

Conservation

The Bedul (Petra Bedouin) were moved against their will from their cave homes in Petra to Umm Sayhoun/Um Seihun by the Jordanian government in 1985, before Petra was officially recognized as a World Heritage Site. They were given homes built in blocks with basic services, including a sewage and drainage system. Among the six communities in the Petra Region, Umm Sayhoun is one of the smaller ones. The village of Wadi Musa is the largest in the area and is mainly home to the Layathnah Bedouin. It is now the closest settlement to the visitor center, the main entrance through the Siq, and the archaeological site. Umm Sayhoun provides access to the "back route" into the site, known as the Wadi Turkmaniyeh pedestrian path.

On December 6, 1985, Petra was named a World Heritage Site. In a popular vote in 2007, it was also chosen as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World. The Petra Archaeological Park (PAP) became an independent organization responsible for managing the site in August 2007.

The Bedul belong to one of the Bedouin tribes. Their cultural traditions and skills were added to UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2005 and officially included in 2008.

In 2011, after a planning period lasting 11 months, the Petra Development and Tourism Region Authority, along with DesignWorkshop and JCP s.r.l., released a Strategic Master Plan to guide future development in the Petra Region. This plan aims to help the area grow in a way that is efficient, balanced, and sustainable for the next 20 years, benefiting both local people and Jordan as a whole. A separate plan was created for Umm Sayhoun and its surrounding areas.

The plan was developed by considering the area’s needs from five perspectives:
– Socio-economic factors
– The Petra Archaeological Park
– Petra’s tourism offerings
– Land use
– Environmental concerns

Petra faces many challenges, including the collapse of ancient buildings, damage from flooding and poor drainage, weathering caused by salt, improper restoration of old structures, and over-tourism. Tourism has grown significantly since 2007, when Petra gained global attention as part of the New 7 Wonders of the World campaign. In 2019, Petra welcomed 1.2 million visitors.

To address these problems, the Petra National Trust (PNT) was created in 1989. It has worked with local and international groups to protect and preserve Petra. UNESCO and ICOMOS recently published a book about threats to World Heritage sites, using Petra as their first example. A presentation titled Tourism and Archaeological Heritage Management at Petra: Driver to Development or Destruction? (2012) was the first in a series to discuss the challenges of preserving Petra’s heritage.

In 2018, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) released a video showing working animals in Petra being mistreated. PETA claimed that animals are forced to carry tourists or pull carriages daily, with handlers using violence against them. The video showed injured animals, including camels with open wounds. Jordan’s authorities responded by proposing a veterinary clinic and raising awareness among animal handlers. In 2020, new PETA videos suggested conditions had not improved, and by 2021, PETA was operating what appeared to be the only veterinary clinic in the area.

Petra is a place where natural and cultural heritage meet, forming a unique landscape. Since Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, also known as Sheikh Ibrahim, rediscovered Petra in 1812, the site has drawn people interested in the history and culture of the Nabataeans, including travelers, pilgrims, artists, and scholars. Systematic archaeological work began in the late 19th century, and ongoing research on Nabataean culture is now part of Petra’s UNESCO World Heritage status. Excavations in the Petra Archaeological Park have revealed more Nabataean heritage, but these discoveries are at risk from environmental factors. Managing water and protecting rock-cut facades are key challenges for preserving Petra’s heritage.

Recent efforts have focused on conservation projects at Petra. Early work included improving access to the Siq to protect tourists and make entry easier. Other projects have included:

• 1958: Restoration of the third pillar of the Treasury building (Al-Khazneh), funded by USAID
• 1974–1990: Conservation work at the Winged Lions Temple
• 1981: Restoration by Jordan’s Department of Antiquities
• 1985: Restoration of the Qasr El Bint Temple by Jordan’s Department of Antiquities
• 1990–1998: Excavation and conservation of the Byzantine Church by the American Centre of Research (ACOR)
• 1992–2002: Conservation and Restoration Center in Petra (CARCIP), a German GTZ Project
• 1993–2000: Excavation, conservation, and restoration of the Great Temple, funded by Brown University, USA
• 1996 onwards: Restoration of the Siq and rehabilitation of the Siq floor by the Petra National Trust, supported by the Jordanian-Swiss counterpart fund, the Swiss Agency for Development, and the World Monuments Fund
• 2001: Restoration of the altar in front of the Qasr Bint Firaun by UNESCO
• 2003: Development of a plan to protect ancient drainage systems and rock-cut facades
• 2003–2017: Evaluation and restoration of tomb facades
• 2006–2010: Preservation of wall paintings in Siq al Barid by the Petra National Trust, Jordan’s Department of Antiquities, and the Courtauld Institute of Art (London)
• 2009 onwards: Continued work on the Winged Lions Temple by the Temple of the Winged Lions Cultural Management (TWLCRM) Initiative, Petra Archaeological Park (PAP), and Jordan’s Department of Antiquities
• 2016–2019: Study and conservation of Nabataean wall paintings and sculptures, funded by the German Research Foundation (Project number 285789434)

Popular culture

In 1845, British poet John William Burgon won a prize at Oxford University for his poem "Petra," which included the line "…a rose-red city half as old as time."
In 1977, the Lebanese Rahbani brothers created a musical called Petra as a reaction to the Lebanese Civil War.
Petra appeared in books such as Bartleby, Left Behind Series, Appointment with Death, The Eagle in the Sand, The Red Sea Sharks (the nineteenth book in The Adventures of Tintin series), and The Moon Goddess and the Son. It was an important part of the Marcus Didius Falco mystery novel Last Act in Palmyra and the setting for Agatha Christie's Appointment with Death. In Chasing Vermeer, the character Petra Andalee was named after the site.
In 1979, Marguerite van Geldermalsen from New Zealand married Mohammed Abdullah, a Bedouin in Petra. They lived in a cave in Petra until her husband died. She wrote the book Married to a Bedouin.
An Englishwoman named Joan Ward wrote Living with Arabs: Nine Years with the Petra Bedouin, describing her life with the Petra Bedouin in Umm Sayhoun from 2004 to 2013.
The playwright John Yarbrough's play Petra was first performed at the Manhattan Repertory Theatre in 2014. It later received awards at the Hudson Guild in New York in 2015 and was included in the Best American Short Plays 2014-2015 collection.
Petra appeared in films such as Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Arabian Nights, Passion in the Desert, Mortal Kombat Annihilation, Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger, The Mummy Returns, Krrish 3, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, Samsara, and Kajraare.
Petra was featured in an episode of Time Scanners, a National Geographic program, where six ancient structures were laser scanned to create 3D models. These models helped researchers learn more about how Petra was built.
An American PBS Nova special called Petra: Lost City of Stone focused on Petra and premiered in the United States and Europe in February 2015.
Petra is central to Netflix's first Arabic original series Jinn, a young adult supernatural drama about djinn in the ancient city of Petra. The show, filmed in Jordan, has five episodes.
Lego included a model of Petra's Al-Khazneh in a gift with purchase of its Wonders of the World collection.
A fictional version of Petra appears as a playable arena in the video game Overwatch, added in a 2018 update.
Petra has been included in every Civilization game since Civilization V.

A part of the Zionist Youth movement organized hikes across the Land of Israel. These trips sometimes involved traveling into Syria and Jordan, a practice reportedly started by Meir Har-Zion. Petra was a popular but dangerous destination. In 1958, Haim Hefer wrote the lyrics for a ballad called HaSela haAdom ("The Red Rock"), which described a trip to Petra that ended in death.

Gallery

• Siq: A narrow canyon where sunlight shines through
• The Obelisk Tomb: A tall stone structure used as a burial place
• The Garden Temple: A temple with gardens
• The Colored Triclinium: A decorated dining room
• Rock graves: Burial sites carved into rock
• Petra Monastery Trail: A path leading to a monastery in Petra
• Temple of Dushares, Petra: A temple located in Petra