Pergamon, also known as Pergamum ( / ˈ p ɜːr ɡ ə m ə n / or / ˈ p ɜːr ɡ ə m ɒ n / ; Ancient Greek: Πέργαμον ), is sometimes called Pergamos ( Πέργαμος ) in modern Greek. It was a wealthy and influential ancient Greek city in the region of Aeolis. The city is located 26 kilometers (16 miles) from the modern coastline of the Aegean Sea on a hill on the north side of the Caicus River (now called Bakırçay) and northwest of the modern city of Bergama, Turkey.

During the Hellenistic period, Pergamon became the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon from 281 to 133 BC under the Attalid dynasty. These rulers made the city one of the most important cultural centers in the Greek world. Many of its ancient buildings still remain today, with the Pergamon Altar being one of the most famous examples. Pergamon was also the northernmost of the seven churches of Asia mentioned in the New Testament Book of Revelation.

The city is built on a high flat area of andesite rock that serves as its acropolis. This area drops steeply on the north, west, and east sides, but three natural steps on the south side make it easier to climb to the top. To the west of the acropolis, the Selinus River (now called Bergamaçay) runs through the city. The Cetius River (now called Kestelçay) flows to the east.

Pergamon was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2014.

Location

Pergamon is located on the northern edge of the Caicus plain in the historic region of Mysia, in the northwest of Turkey. The Caicus River flows through the surrounding mountains and hills, then curves widely toward the southwest. At the base of the mountain range to the north, between the Selinus and Cetius rivers, lies the Pergamon massif, which rises 335 meters (1,099 feet) above sea level. The site is only 26 kilometers from the sea, but the Caicus plain is not directly connected to the ocean because the Karadağ massif blocks the path. This makes the area feel more like an inland region. During the Hellenistic period, the town of Elaia, located at the mouth of the Caicus River, served as the port for Pergamon. The climate is Mediterranean, with dry weather from May to August, similar to other areas along the west coast of Asia Minor.

The Caicus valley is mostly made of volcanic rock, especially andesite, and the Pergamon massif is also formed from andesite. The massif is about one kilometer wide and approximately 5.5 kilometers long from north to south. It has a broad, elongated base and a smaller peak known as the upper city. The side facing the Cetius River is a steep cliff, while the side facing the Selinus River is slightly rougher. On the north side, the rock forms a 70-meter (230-foot) wide rock spur. To the southeast of this spur, which is called the "Garden of the Queen," the massif reaches its highest point and drops suddenly to the east. The upper city extends an additional 250 meters (820 feet) to the south but remains narrow, with a width of only 150 meters (490 feet). At the southern end, the massif gradually slopes downward to the east and south, widening to about 350 meters (1,150 feet) before descending toward the plain in the southwest.

History

Earlier people living in the Bronze Age cannot be proven, although Bronze Age stone tools have been found in nearby areas.

Evidence of people living in Pergamon dates back to the Archaic period, as shown by small archaeological discoveries, especially pottery pieces brought from the west, such as from eastern Greece and Corinth, which are from the late 8th century BC.

The first written mention of Pergamon appears in Xenophon’s Anabasis, a book about the journey of the Ten Thousand Greek soldiers. Xenophon, who called the city Pergamos, gave the rest of his soldiers (about 5,000 men, according to Diodorus) to Thibron, who was planning a campaign against Persian rulers Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, in March 399 BC. At this time, Pergamon was controlled by the family of Gongylos from Eretria, a Greek group that supported the Achaemenid Empire. They had moved to Asia Minor and received Pergamon from Xerxes I. Xenophon stayed at the home of Gongylos’s widow, Hellas.

In 362 BC, Orontes, a Persian ruler of Mysia, used Pergamon as a base for a failed rebellion against the Persian Empire. Pergamon and its surrounding area were freed from Persian control only when Alexander the Great conquered the region. Few remains of the city before the Hellenistic period exist because the land was greatly changed later, and large terraces were built, removing most earlier structures. Parts of the temple of Athena, as well as walls and foundations of the altar in the sanctuary of Demeter, date back to the 4th century.

• Coins from the Greek ruler Gongylos, showing him wearing a Persian cap on the back, were made in Pergamon for the Achaemenid Empire. These coins, from around 450 BC, are the first to show the city’s name, PERG.
• A coin from Orontes, a Persian ruler of Mysia (including Pergamon), from around 357–352 BC.

In 301 BC, Lysimachus, King of Thrace, took control of Pergamon, and his officer Philetaerus expanded the city. In 281 BC, the kingdom of Thrace fell apart, and Philetaerus became an independent ruler, starting the Attalid dynasty. His family ruled Pergamon from 281 BC until 133 BC: Philetaerus (281–263), Eumenes I (263–241), Attalus I (241–197), Eumenes II (197–159), Attalus II (159–138), and Attalus III (138–133). Philetaerus controlled only Pergamon and nearby areas, but Eumenes I expanded the city’s territory, especially after defeating Antiochus I at the Battle of Sardis in 261 BC. Eumenes I did not take a royal title. In 238 BC, Attalus I defeated the Galatians, who had forced Pergamon to pay tribute under Eumenes I. Attalus I then declared Pergamon an independent kingdom.

The Attalids were among the most loyal supporters of Rome in the Hellenistic world. Attalus I fought with Rome against Philip V of Macedon during the First and Second Macedonian Wars. During the Roman–Seleucid War, Pergamon joined Rome’s coalition against Antiochus III and was rewarded with most of the former Seleucid lands in Asia Minor after the Peace of Apamea in 188 BC. Eumenes II supported Rome again in the Third Macedonian War, but Rome suspected him of secret talks with Perseus of Macedon. Because of this, Rome did not reward Pergamon and tried to replace Eumenes II with Attalus II, who refused to cooperate. These events reduced Pergamon’s special status with Rome.

Despite this, under Eumenes II and Attalus II, Pergamon reached its greatest height and was rebuilt on a large scale. The city had stayed roughly the same size since Philetaerus founded it, covering about 21 hectares (52 acres). After 188 BC, a new city wall was built, 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) long, enclosing about 90 hectares (220 acres). The Attalids aimed to make Pergamon a second Athens, a cultural and artistic center. They rebuilt their Acropolis to resemble the one in Athens, and the Library of Pergamon was famous as the second greatest library after Alexandria. Pergamon was also known for making parchment, named after the city. However, parchment was used in Asia Minor long before Pergamon became important, and the story that the Pergamenes invented parchment to avoid a papyrus monopoly by the Ptolemies is not true.

Epigraphic records show the Attalids helped cities grow by sending skilled workers and reducing taxes. They allowed Greek cities in their territory to keep their independence and gave gifts to cultural sites like Delphi, Delos, and Athens. Eumenes II and Attalus II were known for their strong family unity, unlike many other Hellenistic rulers. Attalus II was called Philadelphos ("he who loves his brother"), and his relationship with Eumenes II was compared to the harmony of the mythical brothers Cleobis and Biton.

When Attalus III died without an heir in 133 BC, he left Pergamon to Rome. Aristonicus, who claimed to be Attalus III’s brother, led a rebellion against Rome with the help of Blossius, a Stoic philosopher. Aristonicus had early success, defeating the Roman consul P. Licinius Crassus and his army, but was later defeated by M. Perperna in 129 BC. The Attalid kingdom was divided between Rome, Pontus, and Cappadocia, with most of its land becoming the Roman province of Asia. Pergamon was declared a free city and briefly served as the province’s capital before this role moved to Ephesus.

In 88 BC, Mithridates VI Eupator used Pergamon as his base during his first war against Rome, which he lost. The Romans stripped Pergamon of its privileges and free status, forcing it to pay taxes, supply troops, and hand over property. Many Pergamene goods became luxuries enjoyed by Lucullus. Members of the Pergamene aristocracy, like Diodorus Pasparus in the 70s BC, worked to maintain good relations with Rome by supporting city development. Honorific ins

Pergamon in myth

The city of Pergamon was founded by Telephus, the son of Heracles. However, Pergamon is not mentioned in Greek myths or stories from the archaic or classical periods. In the Epic Cycle, a collection of ancient Greek stories, the Telephus myth is connected to the area of Mysia. According to the story, Telephus traveled to Mysia after receiving advice from an oracle. There, he became the son-in-law or foster-son of Teuthras and inherited his kingdom, called Teuthrania, which included the area between Pergamon and the mouth of the Caicus River. Telephus refused to join the Trojan War, but his son, Eurypylus, fought on the side of the Trojans. This story was included in several ancient tragedies, such as Mysi by Aeschylus, Aleadae by Sophocles, and Telephus and Auge by Euripides. However, Pergamon itself does not appear to have been directly connected to these stories. The way the myth was adapted was not always clear or consistent.

Eurypylus, who was likely part of Telephus’s royal family due to the myth, is not mentioned in a hymn honoring Telephus at the Asclepieion. Otherwise, he does not seem to have been widely recognized. However, the people of Pergamon made offerings to Telephus, and the grave of his mother, Auge, was located in Pergamon near the Caicus River. This linked Pergamon to the Trojan War stories. According to one version, Pergamon’s ruler was an Arcadian who fought alongside Telephus against Agamemnon when Agamemnon mistakenly attacked the Caicus River instead of Troy.

Another story connected to Pergamon’s founding involves Pergamus, the city’s namesake. Pergamus was the grandson of Achilles through his father, Neoptolemus, and the grandson of Eetion of Thebes through his mother, Andromache, who became Neoptolemus’s concubine after the death of Hector of Troy. After the Trojan War, Pergamus and his mother fled to Mysia, where he killed the ruler of Teuthrania and renamed the city after himself. He later built a shrine for his mother after her death. In a different version, a man named Grynos, the son of Eurypylus, named a city after Pergamus in gratitude. These stories are believed to have developed later, no earlier than the 3rd century BC. Pergamus’s role in these myths was not central, though he was honored with some religious practices. During the Roman period, Pergamus’s image appeared on coins, and a shrine was built in his honor. This connection helped link Pergamon to the world of Homer’s epics. Later, Mithridates VI was celebrated in Pergamon as a new Pergamus.

For the Attalid rulers of Pergamon, their connection to Heracles was especially important. Other Hellenistic kingdoms, such as the Ptolemies, Antigonids, and Seleucids, also claimed descent from divine figures, often linking themselves to Heracles or Apollo. These claims were influenced by Alexander the Great, who claimed to be descended from Heracles through his father, Philip II. The Attalids followed this tradition by using their connection to Heracles to strengthen their own status. The people of Pergamon supported this effort and began calling themselves Telephidai (meaning “descendants of Telephus”) and referred to Pergamon as the “Telephian city” in poetic writings.

History of research and excavation

The first written record of Pergamon after ancient times was in the 13th century. In the 15th century, travelers like Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli began visiting Pergamon and sharing their observations. Thomas Smith, who visited the Levant in 1668, provided the most detailed description of the site. Later travelers, such as Jacob Spon and George Wheler, did not add significant new information to his account.

In the late 18th century, scholars became more interested in studying ancient history, especially in Asia Minor. Marie-Gabriel-Florent-Auguste de Choiseul-Gouffier, a French traveler and ambassador in Istanbul, played an important role during this time. In the early 19th century, Charles Robert Cockerell wrote a detailed account, and Otto Magnus von Stackelberg created important sketches. Charles Texier later published a full description of Pergamon, including plans and views of the city and its ruins.

In 1864–5, the German engineer Carl Humann first visited Pergamon. He returned in 1869 to plan a road from Pergamon to Dikili and began studying the city’s history. In 1871, he led a small expedition with Ernst Curtius, during which two pieces of a large frieze were found and sent to Berlin. These pieces were linked to the Great Altar of Pergamon, mentioned by Lucius Ampelius, but it is unclear who made this connection. Alexander Conze later took charge of the Berlin Royal Museums’ ancient sculpture department and started efforts to excavate and protect Pergamon’s monuments, which were believed to include the Great Altar.

Carl Humann continued working at Pergamon, uncovering important finds like the architrave inscription of the Temple of Demeter in 1875. In 1878, he began excavating the area of the Zeus altar, continuing until 1886. With Ottoman Empire approval, the discovered reliefs were sent to Berlin, where the Pergamon Museum opened in 1907. Conze continued the work, aiming to fully study and expose the ancient city. Wilhelm Dörpfeld, an architectural historian, led important discoveries from 1900 to 1911, including the Lower Agora, the House of Attalos, the Gymnasion, and the Sanctuary of Demeter.

Excavations were paused during World War I and resumed in 1927 under Theodor Wiegand, who worked until 1939. He focused on the upper city, the Asklepieion, and the Red Basilica. World War II interrupted work again, which restarted in 1957. Erich Boehringer studied the Asklepieion and the lower city until 1968. Wolfgang Radt took over in 1971, focusing on residential buildings and the city’s water system, which supported 200,000 people. He also led conservation efforts. Since 2006, Felix Pirson has directed excavations.

Most artifacts from Pergamon’s early excavations were sent to Berlin’s Pergamon Museum, with some going to Istanbul’s Archaeological Museum after it opened in 1891. The Bergama Museum, opened after World War I, holds finds from later excavations.

In May 2022, archaeologists discovered a well-preserved geometric mosaic floor, about 1,800 years old, near the Red Basilica.

Main sights

The most famous structure in the city is the large altar, also known as the Great Altar. It was likely built to honor Zeus and Athena. The foundation of the altar is still located in the Upper city, but the remains of the Pergamon frieze, which once decorated it, are now displayed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. These parts of the frieze were moved to Germany and arranged in a partial reconstruction.

To build the altar, workers created a flat area by building steps into the ground. This allowed the altar to face the Temple of Athena. The base of the altar was about 36 meters by 33 meters. The outside of the base had a detailed carved image of the Gigantomachy, a battle between the Olympian gods and the Giants. The frieze was 2.30 meters tall and 113 meters long, making it the second-longest frieze from ancient times, after the Parthenon Frieze in Athens. A wide staircase, 20 meters long, led up to the main structure of the altar. This structure had a colonnade around it and included a courtyard. The inside walls of the colonnade had another frieze showing the life of Telephus, the son of Heracles and the mythical founder of Pergamon. This frieze was about 1.60 meters tall, smaller than the outer frieze.

In the New Testament Book of Revelation, the faith of people in Pergamon is praised. The text says they "dwell where Satan's throne is." Many scholars believe this refers to the Pergamon Altar because it looks like a large throne.

The well-preserved Theatre of Pergamon dates back to the Hellenistic period and could hold about 10,000 people in 78 rows of seats. It was the steepest ancient theatre, standing 36 meters high. The seating area (koilon) was divided by two walkways and by stairways into sections. Below the theatre was a long, wide terrace that rested on a high wall and was framed by a stoa. This terrace had no circular orchestra, which was common in Greek theatres, so only a wooden stage was built. A marble stage was added later, in the 1st century BC. Additional theatres were built during the Roman period, one in the Roman new city and another in the sanctuary of Asclepius.

At the highest point of the citadel is the Temple of Trajan, also called the Temple of Zeus Philios, since both Zeus and Trajan were worshipped there. The temple was built on a raised platform and had a Corinthian-style design with six columns on the short sides and nine on the long sides. A high stoa blocked the north side, while simple walls surrounded the west and east sides. Later, during Hadrian's reign, more stoas were added.

During excavations, pieces of statues of Trajan and Hadrian were found in the rubble of the temple, including their portrait heads. Fragments of the cult statue of Zeus Philios were also discovered.

At Pergamon, Dionysus was called Kathegemon, meaning "the guide." He was worshipped as the main god of the Attalid dynasty starting in the late 3rd century BC. Eumenes II built a temple for Dionysus at the northern end of the theatre terrace in the 2nd century BC. The temple was an Ionic-style building with a pronaos supported by four columns. Only a few parts of the original Hellenistic structure remain, while most of what is left dates to a later reconstruction, possibly under Caracalla or Hadrian.

Pergamon's oldest temple was a sanctuary for Athena, built in the 4th century BC. It was a north-facing Doric temple with six columns on the short sides and ten on the long sides. The cella had two rooms. The temple's foundation, about 12.70 meters by 21.80

Infrastructure and housing

Pergamon is an example of a city that grew in a planned and controlled way. Philetairos changed Pergamon from a small, old settlement into a strongly protected city. He or his successor, Attalos I, built a wall around the upper part of the city, including the flat area to the south, the main public square, and some homes. More homes were likely built outside these walls. As the city grew, streets were widened, and the city became more grand and impressive. Under Attalos I, some small changes were made to the city designed by Philetairos.

During the rule of Eumenes II and Attalos II, the city expanded greatly. A new street system was created, and a new wall with a large gate called the Gate of Eumenes was built south of the Acropolis. This wall now surrounded the entire hill, including the flat area to the southwest and the Selinus River. Many public buildings were built, including a new marketplace south of the Acropolis and a new gymnasium in the east. The slopes of the hill were settled and connected by streets.

The layout of Pergamon was influenced by the steepness of the land. Streets had to turn sharply to make climbing the hill easier. To build homes and public squares, workers carved into the cliffs and built terraces. As the city grew, new buildings were built on top of older ones because space was limited.

In Roman times, a new area was built west of the Selinus River. This area included homes, baths, theaters, stadiums, and religious sites. This new city did not need walls because there were no outside threats.

Most homes in Pergamon had a small, square courtyard in the center, with rooms on one or two sides. Main rooms were often stacked on the north side of the courtyard. A wide passage or colonnade on the north side led to entry halls, which connected to other rooms. Because of the steep land and older buildings, city blocks could not be arranged in a strict north-south pattern. This made the size and layout of rooms vary between homes. By the time of Philetairos, this type of courtyard house became common and spread more widely over time. Some homes had designs similar to those in Priene, while others had wide halls in front of main rooms. Some homes had second floors reached by stairs. Cisterns in courtyards collected rainwater from sloping roofs. A city block of 35 by 45 meters can be reconstructed, though its size varied due to the land.

From the time of Philetairos, important city events took place on the Acropolis. Later, an "Upper Agora" was built at the southern end of the Acropolis. During Attalos I's rule, a Temple of Zeus was built there. A multi-story building to the north of the temple likely had a role connected to the marketplace. As the city expanded, these buildings were later removed, and the Upper Agora became more focused on trade, though it remained special because of the temple. Under Eumenes II, the commercial role of the Upper Agora grew. Key signs of this change include halls built under Eumenes II, whose back rooms were probably used for trade. A "West Chamber" was also built, possibly for market administration. After these changes, the Upper Agora became a center for trade and public events.

Because of nearby construction, such as the renovation of the Sanctuary of Athena and the Pergamon Altar, the Upper Agora changed again. Its design became more dramatic, focusing on the two new structures, especially the altar, which was visible from below due to the removal of the usual surrounding colonnade.

The "Lower Agora," 80 meters long and 55 meters wide, was built under Eumenes II and remained largely unchanged until Late Antiquity. Like the Upper Agora, its rectangular shape was adapted to the steep land. The construction had three levels. The upper and "Main Level" opened into a central courtyard. On the lower level, rooms were only on the south and east sides because of the slope. A colonnade led to the outside. The market area covered two levels, with a large columned hall in the center containing small shops and other rooms.

The main street, which winds up the hill to the Acropolis with sharp turns, is typical of Pergamon's street system. Shops and warehouses lined this street. The street surface was made of andesite blocks up to 5 meters wide, 1 meter long, and 30 cm deep. A drainage system carried water down the slope. Because this was the city's most important street, the materials used were of high quality.

Philetairos' city design was shaped by practical needs. Only under Eumenes II did the city plan show signs of an overall plan. Unlike earlier attempts at a grid-like street system, a fan-shaped layout was used around the gymnasium, with streets up to four meters wide to improve traffic flow. In contrast, Philetairos' system of narrow alleys was less organized, though this is still being studied. Where the land made it impossible to build streets, small alleys were used as connections. Overall, the city had large, wide streets (plateiai) and smaller, narrow connecting streets (stenopoi).

The nearly 200-meter-wide Pergamon Bridge, located under the Red Basilica in Bergama, is the largest ancient bridge structure.

Pergamon's residents were supplied with water through an effective system. In addition to cisterns, nine pipes (seven Hellenistic ceramic pipes and two open Roman channels) carried about 30,000–35,000 cubic meters of water daily.

The Madradağ aqueduct was a ceramic pipe with an 18 cm diameter that brought water from a source over 40 kilometers away in the Madradağ mountains (1,174 meters above sea level) during the Hellenistic period. Its importance lies in how it transported water through a 200-meter-deep valley to the Acropolis. The pipe had three channels that ended 3 km north of the citadel before reaching the valley, emptying into a pool with a double sedimentation tank. This pool was 35 meters higher than the citadel. A single lead pipe carried water from the pool to the Acropolis, pressurized to 200 meters of water column. This pressurized system allowed water to cross the valley between the pool and the citadel.

Inscriptions

Greek inscriptions found at Pergamon include rules created by town officials, such as the Astynomoi inscription. This inscription helped people learn more about Greek city laws, including how roads were repaired, rules about public and private water supplies, and guidelines for bathrooms.

Notable people

• Epigonus (3rd century BC) was a Greek sculptor.
• Andronicus of Pergamum (2nd century BC) was an Attalid ambassador to Rome.
• Biton of Pergamon (2nd or 3rd century BC) was a Greek writer and engineer.
• Hegesinus of Pergamon (around 160 BC) was an Academic philosopher.
• Sosus of Pergamon (2nd century BC) was a Greek mosaic artist.
• Apollodorus (1st century BC) was a rhetor and teacher to Augustus.
• Cratippus of Pergamon (1st century BC) was a Peripatetic philosopher.
• Antipas of Pergamum (1st century AD) was a Christian martyr and saint.
• Aristocles (1st century AD) was a Greek sophist.
• Aelius Nicon (2nd century AD) was a Greek architect and builder.
• Aeschrion of Pergamon (2nd century AD) was a physician and tutor to Galen.
• Galen (around 129–200/216 AD) was a Greek physician.
• Oribasius (around 320–403 AD) was a Greek physician.
• Aedesius (4th century) was a Neoplatonic philosopher.
• Sosipatra (4th century) was a Neoplatonic philosopher.
• Telephus was a Greek grammarian.