The Tian Shan, also called Tengri Tagh or Tengir-Too, is a large group of mountains in Central Asia. The highest point is Jengish Chokusu, which reaches 7,439 meters (24,406 feet) and is located in Kyrgyzstan. The lowest point is the Turpan Depression, found 154 meters (505 feet) below sea level.

The Tian Shan holds importance in the religion of Tengrism. The second-highest peak is named Khan Tengri, meaning "Lord of the Spirits." In 2013, the eastern part of the Tian Shan in China's Xinjiang Region was added to the list of World Heritage Sites. In 2016, the western part, which includes areas of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan, was also recognized as a World Heritage Site.

Name

One of the earliest mentions of these mountains may be linked to the Xiongnu name Qilian (written in Chinese as 祁連, pinyin: Qílián). According to the Tang dynasty scholar Yan Shigu, this name means "sky" or "heaven" in the Xiongnu language. In the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, Qilian is connected to the homeland of the Yuezhi people. The term is believed to refer to the Tian Shan, not the Qilian Mountains located 1,500 kilometers (930 miles) farther east. The name Otgontenger in Mongolia also has the same meaning.

Geography

The Tian Shan range is located north and west of the Taklamakan Desert and directly north of the Tarim Basin. It spans the border regions of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Xinjiang in Northwest China. To the south, it connects with the Pamir Mountains, while to the north and east, it meets the Altai Mountains of Mongolia.

The Tian Shan range extends eastwards for about 2,900 kilometers from Tashkent, Uzbekistan. It is part of the Himalayan orogenic belt, formed when the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates collided during the Cenozoic era. The range includes the Bogda Shan in the east, as shown on maps from both Western and Chinese sources.

The highest peak in the Tian Shan is Jengish Chokusu, also called Victory Peak. This mountain is shared by Kyrgyzstan and China and reaches 7,439 meters (24,406 feet), making it the highest point in Kyrgyzstan. The second highest peak, Khan Tengri (King Heaven), is located at the border of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and China. It stands at 7,010 meters (23,000 feet) and is the highest point in Kazakhstan. These two mountains are considered the northernmost peaks in the world that rise above 7,000 meters (23,000 feet).

The Torugart Pass, which is 3,752 meters (12,310 feet) high, marks the border between Kyrgyzstan and Xinjiang. The Alatau ranges, which are lower in elevation and covered with forests, are part of the northern Tian Shan and are home to Turkic-speaking pastoral tribes.

The Tian Shan is separated from the Tibetan Plateau by the Taklamakan Desert and the Tarim Basin to the south. The Syr Darya, Ili River, and Tarim River all begin in the Tian Shan. The Aksu Canyon is a notable feature in the northwestern part of the mountain range.

Permafrost, or ground that remains frozen for long periods, is common in the Tian Shan above 3,500–3,700 meters. In some areas, permafrost is found at lower elevations, such as 2,000 meters, depending on the local geography and climate. It usually occurs between 2,700 and 3,300 meters.

The glaciers in the Tian Shan are melting quickly. Since 1961, they have lost 27% or 5.4 billion tons of ice—nearly four times the global average. By 2050, it is expected that half of the remaining ice will disappear.

Russian explorer Peter Semenov was one of the first Europeans to document the Tian Shan extensively in the 1850s. He later changed his family name to honor the mountains.

Ranges

The Tian Shan mountain range includes several named sections, often discussed separately (all distances are approximate):

• Barkol Tagh (Barkol Shan)
• Bei Shan
• Bogda Shan
• Borohoro Shan
• Irenchabirga
• Qarliq Tagh (Qarlik Shan, Karkik Tagh, Karlik Shan, Harlik Shan)
• Kyrgyz Ala-Too Range (Kyrgyz Alatau, Kyrgyz Range, Alexander Range)
• Kakshaal Too (Kokschaal Tau, Qaqşaal Too)
• Küngöy Ala-Too Range (Kungej-Alatau, Kungey Alatau, Kungoy Ala-Too, Küngei Alataw, Kungey Alataw)
• Ketmen Ridge
• Kuruk Tagh (Quruq Tagh, Kuruktagh, Kuluketage, Kuruktage Shan)
• Talas Alatau (Talas Alatow, Talas Ala-Too)
• Suusamyr Too
• Terskey Alatoo (Terskey Alatau, Terskej Alatau, Teskey Alatoo)
• Trans-Ili Alatau (Ile Alatau, Ile Alatauy, Zailiisky Alatau, Transili Alatau)

In China, the Tian Shan begins about 600 to 400 kilometers (370 to 250 miles) east of Ürümqi, north of Kumul City (Hami), with the Qarlik Tagh and Barkol Mountains. The Bogda Shan (god mountains) stretch from 350 to 40 kilometers (217 to 25 miles) east of Ürümqi. Between Ürümqi and the Turfan Depression lies a lower area. The Borohoro Mountains start just south of Ürümqi and extend west-northwest for 450 kilometers (280 miles), separating Dzungaria from the Ili River basin. Their northern end connects to the 200-kilometer (120-mile) Dzungarian Alatau, which runs east-northeast along the Sino-Kazakh border. The Dzungarian Alatau begins 50 kilometers (31 miles) east of Taldykorgan in Kazakhstan and ends at the Dzungarian Gate. The Dzungarian Alatau (north), Borohoro Mountains (middle), and Ketmen Ridge (south) form a reversed Z or S shape, with the northern part enclosing part of Dzungaria and the southern part surrounding the upper Ili Valley.

In Kyrgyzstan, the main line of the Tian Shan continues as the Narat Range from the base of the Borohoros, extending west for 570 kilometers (350 miles) to the point where China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan meet. This area marks the highest part of the range, the Central Tian Shan, including Peak Pobeda (Kakshaal Too range) and Khan Tengri. West of this, the Tian Shan splits into an "eye," with Issyk Kul Lake at its center. The southern side of the lake is the Terskey Alatau, and the northern side is the Kyungey Ala-Too (shady and sunny Ala-Too). North of the Kyungey Ala-Too and parallel to it is the Trans-Ili Alatau in Kazakhstan, just south of Almaty. West of the "eye," the range continues 400 kilometers (250 miles) as the Kyrgyz Ala-Too, separating the Chüy Region from the Naryn Region of Kyrgyzstan and then Kazakhstan from the upper valley of the Talas River. The southern side of these mountains merges with the 200-kilometer (120-mile) Talas Ala-Too Range ("Ala-too" is a Kyrgyz spelling, while "Alatau" is a Kazakh spelling). At the eastern end of the Talas Ala-Too, the Suusamyr Too range extends southeast, enclosing the Suusamyr Valley or plateau.

South of the Fergana Valley, there is an 800-kilometer (500-mile) group of mountains that curves west-southwest from south of Issyk Kul Lake, separating the Tarim Basin from the Fergana Valley. The Fergana Range extends northeast toward the Talas Ala-Too, separating the upper Naryn basin from the Fergana Valley. The southern side of these mountains merges with the Pamirs in Tajikistan (Alay Mountains and Trans-Alay Range). West of this is the Turkestan Range, which continues nearly to Samarkand.

Ice Age

The Tian Shan plateau, which is 100 to 120 kilometers wide, is found on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin. It lies between the Kokshaal-Tau mountain range to the south and the Terskey Alatau mountain range to the north. The Kokshaal-Tau mountain range stretches 570 kilometers from Pik Dankowa in the west to Pik Pobeda in the east-northeast. During glacial times, this mountain range, along with the nearby Terskey Alatau range and the Tian Shan plateau, was covered by connected ice streams and a large plateau glacier. Today, the only remaining part of this ancient glacier is the 61-kilometer-long South Inylschek glacier. The glacier tongues from the plateau glacier flowed northward toward Lake Issyk Kul, breaking off into this 160-kilometer-long lake.

In the high mountain area of the Kungey Alatau, which extends 230 kilometers north of Lake Issyk Kul and connects to the mountain foreland near Alma Ata, there was also strong glaciation. Glaciers from the Kungey Alatau flowed into Lake Issyk Kul, and the Ak-Sai valley glacier formed a mountain foreland glacier. The Chon-Kemin valley was covered by glaciers up to where it flows into the Chu valley.

Overall, the glacial Tian Shan region covered about 118,000 square kilometers. During the last ice age, the snowline was about 1,200 meters lower than it is today. This would have caused the average yearly temperature during the Last Glacial Maximum to be 7.2 to 8.4 degrees Celsius colder than today, assuming similar amounts of rainfall.

Ecology

The Tian Shan has important forests of Schrenk's spruce (Picea schrenkiana) at heights above 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). Lower slopes of the mountains have special natural forests of wild walnuts and apples.

In its recent geological history, the Tian Shan was protected from glaciers by the warm effects of the Indian Ocean monsoon climate. This climate helped shape the area’s natural environment, allowing its unique ecosystem to develop. The mountains experienced ongoing geological changes, including shifting water flow patterns, which influenced plant growth and created fertile soil for young plants to grow.

Tulips first appeared in the Tian Shan Mountains. The plant later traveled to Turkey through the Silk Road and became a symbol of the Ottoman Empire.

Early forms of important crops, such as apricots (Prunus armeniaca), pears (Pyrus spp.), pomegranates (Punica granatum), figs (Ficus), cherries (Prunus avium), and mulberries (Morus), grew in the region. The Tian Shan also supported animals like bears, deer, and wild boar, which helped spread seeds and increase plant diversity.

Plants that now grow in the Tian Shan, including early versions of the sweet apple we know today, likely arrived from the east through birds. These early apples may have resembled small, bitter fruits similar to the Siberian crabapple (Malus baccata). Bird feet, feathers, or crops might have carried apple seeds to new areas.

A type of Y. pestis bacteria, which caused the bubonic plague known as the Black Death, may have originated in the Tian Shan. The disease spread along the Silk Road and led to the deaths of about half of Europe’s population in the mid-1300s.

Religion

In Tengrism, Khan Tengri is considered the highest god and the ruler of all spirits. It is also the name of the second tallest mountain peak in the Tian Shan range.