Great Zimbabwe was a city located in the southeastern hills of modern-day Zimbabwe, near the town of Masvingo. People began living there around the year 1000, and it became the capital of the Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe in the 13th century. It is the largest stone structure built in Southern Africa before European colonization. Major construction of the city started in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The city was abandoned in the 16th or 17th century. The buildings were constructed by ancestors of the Shona people, who currently live in Zimbabwe and nearby countries. The stone city covers an area of 7.22 square kilometers (2.79 square miles). Estimates of the population vary. Earlier studies suggested the city had as many as 20,000 people at its peak. A more recent study using archaeological, ethnographic, and historical evidence, along with statistical modeling, suggests the population likely did not exceed 10,000 people. The area controlled by the Zimbabwe state was estimated to be about 50,000 square kilometers (19,000 square miles). Great Zimbabwe is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The site includes three main areas: the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex, and the Great Enclosure, which were built at different times. The city also had space for common people to live within its walls. Scholars disagree on the exact purposes of these areas. Some believe they were homes for royalty and leaders during different periods, while others think they served different functions. The Great Enclosure, with its 11-meter-high walls built without mortar, was constructed during the 13th and 14th centuries. It likely housed the royal family and included public spaces for rituals.

The first confirmed visits by Europeans occurred in the late 19th century, and studies of the site began in 1871. Between the 1890s and 1920s, European collectors took artifacts from the site. Later research was controversial because the government of Rhodesia, which was controlled by white people, pressured archaeologists to claim the site was not built by Black Africans. By the 1950s, most scholars agreed that the site was built by African people. Today, Great Zimbabwe is a national monument in Zimbabwe, and the modern country was named after it.

The word "Great" distinguishes this site from smaller ruins called "zimbabwes," which means "houses of stone" in the Shona language. These smaller ruins are found across the Zimbabwe Highveld and other parts of Southern Africa. More than 400 similar sites have been identified, including Bumbusi in Zimbabwe and Manyikeni in Mozambique, all featuring large walls built without mortar.

Name

Zimbabwe is the Shona name for the ruins. A Portuguese soldier named Vicente Pegado first wrote about them in 1531. At that time, he was the leader of the Portuguese military post in Sofala. He wrote that the local people called the structures "Symbaoe," which means "court" in their language.

The name includes "dzimba," which means "houses" in Shona. There are two theories about where the name comes from. One theory suggests the name comes from "Dzimba-dze-mabwe," which means "large houses made of stone" in Shona. "Dzimba" is the plural of "imba," meaning "house," and "mabwe" is the plural of "ibwe," meaning "stone."

Another theory says the name is a shortened version of "dzimba-hwe," which means "respected houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona. This term is often used for the homes or burial places of important leaders.

History and description

The Great Zimbabwe area was first settled by the San people about 100,000 years ago. Around 150 BCE, Bantu-speaking groups arrived and began forming agricultural communities by the 4th century CE. From the 4th to the 7th centuries, people from the Gokomere or Ziwa cultures lived in the valley, farming, mining iron, and working with it, but they did not build stone structures. These are the earliest known Iron Age settlements in the area, and the later Gumanye people are believed to be ancestors of the Karanga (south-central Shona), who later built Great Zimbabwe.

Stone buildings at Great Zimbabwe were constructed starting in the 11th century and continued for more than 300 years. Farming and raising cattle helped create strong social networks and supported the sharing of goods and services through traditional institutions. Long-distance trade was important for connecting local groups to larger regions. The ruling family used thick daga (a type of earthen material) to build homes, rather than mixing it with wooden poles, and constructed stone walls to protect their homes from public view. By the 13th century, large dry-stone walls were built.

The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are among the oldest and largest structures in southern Africa. The Great Enclosure, its most famous structure, has walls up to 11 meters (36 feet) high and stretches about 250 meters (820 feet) long. Its growth is linked to the decline of Mapungubwe around 1300 or the increased availability of gold in the area. The political and religious ideas of Great Zimbabwe helped legitimize the king’s (mambo) position, connecting leaders to their ancestors and to God. According to Ken Mufuka, the shrine in the Hill Complex was where spirit mediums (svikiro) lived. These people were responsible for guiding the state and preserving traditions of the founders, including Chigwagu Rusvingo, Chaminuka, Chimurenga, Tovera, and Soro-rezhou.

Traditional estimates suggest Great Zimbabwe had up to 18,000 people at its peak, but more recent studies suggest the population likely never exceeded 10,000. The ruins cover 730 hectares (1,800 acres), an area similar to medieval London. While buildings within the stone enclosures were densely packed, areas outside had fewer structures. Most people lived in homes made of mud and wood, though the exact number of these homes is unknown. Stone structures were likely used by royalty, officials, or the elite. No burial sites have been found to help estimate the population.

In 1531, Vicente Pegado, a Portuguese captain in Sofala, described Great Zimbabwe’s ruins as forming three distinct groups: the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex, and the Great Enclosure. The Hill Complex, the oldest, was used from the 11th to 13th centuries. The Great Enclosure was occupied from the 13th to 15th centuries, and the Valley Complex from the 14th to 16th centuries. The Hill Complex includes the Eastern Enclosure, where the Zimbabwe Birds may have stood, a high balcony, and a large boulder shaped like the Zimbabwe Bird. The Great Enclosure has an inner wall, an outer wall, and a conical tower between them. The Valley Complex is split into Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, each with different periods of use.

Archaeologists have different ideas about the purpose of these areas. Some believe they were built by different kings who created new homes. Others think the Hill Complex was for rituals, the Valley Complex for common people, and the Great Enclosure for the king. However, the dating of finds in these areas does not always support this view.

Dhaka pits were used as water sources by Great Zimbabwe’s people. These pits, which may have been used since the mid-2nd millennium CE, could store more than 18,000 cubic meters (640,000 cubic feet) of water.

The most important artifacts found at Great Zimbabwe are the eight Zimbabwe Birds, carved from soapstone. These birds were placed on monoliths about a person’s height. Slots in the Eastern Enclosure of the Hill Complex suggest they were meant to hold the birds, but the birds were not found in their original positions. Other items include soapstone figurines, pottery, iron gongs, ivory, copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, gold jewelry, and foreign goods like Chinese pottery and glass beads from Persia. These items show Great Zimbabwe’s connections to international trade.

Great Zimbabwe became a major trading center after Mapungubwe declined around 1300. Goods like salt, cattle, grain, and copper were traded as far north as the Kundelungu Plateau in present-day DR Congo. Much of the city’s wealth came from controlling trade routes between the goldfields of the Zimbabwean Plateau and the Swahili coast. Traders used rivers like the Save and Runde, possibly in local canoes, to transport goods. Swahili city-states like Sofala acted as intermediaries, linking African trade to merchants across the Indian Ocean. Local trade also included cattle, which were managed by the royal court. Chinese pottery, Arabian coins, and other foreign items have been found at the site, showing the kingdom’s global connections. Archaeological evidence includes Longquan green-glazed stoneware and blue-and-white porcelain from the 14th and 15th centuries, likely brought through Swahili ports like Kilwa Kisiwani. Despite these trade links, no evidence shows Great Zimbabwe borrowed architectural ideas from places like Kilwa.

Great Zimbabwe was an important site for gold working in southern Africa. Discoveries there show that gold production required skill and practice, not just common activities. Recent studies have further explored these findings.

History of research and origins of the ruins

There has been much discussion about the origins of Great Zimbabwe, known as the "Zimbabwe controversy." In the past, some people in Rhodesia believed it was impossible that local Africans built the structures, claiming that items like Persian bowls and Chinese pottery found there were from earlier settlements before the Bantu arrived. The colonial government pushed archaeologists to ignore the idea that Africans built the site, as accepting this would challenge their belief in a "civilising mission." For many years, historians focused on disproving false theories that claimed the builders were Jews, Arabs, Phoenicians, or others, rather than the Shona people. It was not until the 1950s that most scholars agreed the site was built by Africans.

The first known European visit to the area may have been by Portuguese traveler António Fernandes between 1513 and 1515. He described the region, including the Shona kingdoms and stone buildings without mortar, but did not mention Great Zimbabwe directly. Portuguese traders in the early 16th century learned about the ruins and linked them to gold mining and trade. Some records mention an inscription at the entrance to Great Zimbabwe written in unfamiliar characters.

In 1506, explorer Diogo de Alcáçova wrote to the Portuguese king that the structures were part of the kingdom of Ucalanga, likely referring to the Shona people. In 1538, João de Barros, based on reports from Moorish traders, described the ruins as "Symbaoe," meaning "royal court" in the local language. He noted that the site was guarded by a nobleman and that some of the wives of the ruler Benomotapa lived there. This suggests the ruins were still inhabited in the early 16th century.

Great Zimbabwe was rediscovered by Europeans in 1867 by Adam Render, a German-American hunter, who later showed it to Karl Mauch, a German explorer. Mauch dismissed the idea that Africans built the site and instead suggested a connection to the Biblical Queen of Sheba or King Solomon, a theory also proposed by earlier writers. This idea spread among white settlers.

After Mauch's visit, looters, including those working for W.G. Neal’s Ancient Ruins Company, removed valuable items from the site, damaging the ruins. In 1905, Carl Peters collected a ceramic figurine, which some believed was from ancient Egypt, but later experts suggested it was a forgery.

In 1892, J. Theodore Bent, with support from Cecil Rhodes and scientific groups, published a book about the ruins. He incorrectly claimed the builders were Phoenicians or Arabs, though he had no formal training in archaeology. His unscientific digging damaged the site’s layers, making it hard to study its history later.

The Lemba people, a group in southern Africa, have claimed ties to Great Zimbabwe. They speak Bantu languages and share some religious practices with Judaism and Islam, which they say were passed down through oral traditions.

The first proper archaeological study of Great Zimbabwe was done by David Randall-MacIver in 1905–1906. He found evidence that the site was built by Bantu-speaking people, supporting the idea that the Shona were its creators.

Political implications

Martin Hall explains that research on the Iron Age in southern Africa was strongly influenced by ideas from colonial times. These influences appear in early ideas about Africa's past and in how archaeologists study history today. Preben Kaarsholm notes that both colonial rulers and black nationalist groups used the history of Great Zimbabwe to support their views about the country's future. Examples of this include books like Alexander Wilmot's Monomotapa (Rhodesia) and Ken Mufuka's Dzimbahwe: Life and Politics in the Golden Age. Fictional works that reflect this include The Sunbird by Wilbur Smith and Year of the Uprising by Stanlake Samkange.

When white colonial leaders like Cecil Rhodes first saw the ruins of Great Zimbabwe, they believed the area would provide great wealth for those who controlled it. Pikirayi and Kaarsholm suggest this view helped encourage people to settle and invest in the region. Gertrude Caton-Thompson recognized that the people who built Great Zimbabwe were African, but she described the site as the work of a society she saw as less developed. During the 1960s and 1970s in Rhodesia, the official belief was that the structures were built by non-black people. Archaeologists who disagreed with this view were silenced by the government. Paul Sinclair, who spoke for None But Ourselves, said:

"This suppression of archaeology led to the departure of important archaeologists, including Peter Garlake, a top official responsible for protecting historical sites, and Roger Summers of the National Museum."

To black nationalist groups, Great Zimbabwe became a powerful symbol of African achievement. Reclaiming its history was a key goal for those fighting for majority rule. In 1980, the newly independent country was renamed Zimbabwe, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were kept as a national symbol in the new flag. After Zimbabwe became an independent nation, Great Zimbabwe was used to support changing government policies. At first, it was said to represent a form of pre-colonial "African socialism," but later, the focus shifted to showing how wealth and power developed among a ruling group. An example of the earlier view is Ken Mufuka's booklet, though this work has faced criticism. A tower from Great Zimbabwe is also shown on Zimbabwe's coat of arms.

Some soapstone carvings from Great Zimbabwe were taken in 1890 and given to Cecil Rhodes. He made copies to share with friends. Most of the original carvings have since been returned to Zimbabwe, but one remains at Rhodes' former home, Groote Schuur, in Cape Town.

Local perspectives

Local stories, even though each group claims the site of Great Zimbabwe, are very similar in expressing sadness about both European explorers and professional archaeologists for damaging and taking items from a sacred place. These communities believe the government is responsible for the "silence" and "closure" of Great Zimbabwe because it refuses to "acknowledge the ownership and control of the site by the ancestors and Mwari."

For many local communities, Great Zimbabwe is not seen as just an "abandoned" or historical place, but as a living cultural landscape connected to their spiritual and economic lives. However, some researchers say that archaeologists often have authority because they use scientific methods and claim to be objective, so their views are given more importance, which makes local perspectives feel ignored. Because of this, the monument is usually treated as a historical archaeological site instead of a cultural landscape that still has meaning for local communities.

Great Zimbabwe Hotel

In 1902, during the time when Zimbabwe was a British colony, the Great Zimbabwe Hotel was built to provide lodging for Europeans visiting the Great Zimbabwe Monuments. The hotel is located in the area surrounding the monuments and has faced disagreements between the hotel's management, the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ), and nearby communities. At first, the hotel was only for Europeans, and Africans were not allowed to stay there or visit the monuments. Local people were often prevented from entering the hotel grounds, with access sometimes denied based on their clothing, appearance, or social position. Villagers carrying items, wearing certain types of clothing, or dressed in traditional attire for cultural events were frequently refused entry.

During the 1980s and 1990s, the hotel and the monuments worked together more smoothly because both were managed by European staff. At that time, workers at the monuments were welcomed at the hotel and sometimes given free meals and use of facilities. However, conflicts grew after the monuments were managed by African staff. Disagreements arose over paths for visitors, how resources were used, and new developments near the archaeological site, such as building campsites and septic tanks without consulting the NMMZ. Buses carrying visitors to the monuments were also rerouted to avoid passing through the hotel grounds because passengers often made noise or sang loudly when arriving.

Great Zimbabwe University

In the early 21st century, the government of Zimbabwe supported the creation of a university near the ruins. This university focuses on arts and culture and uses the area's history for its programs. The main campus is located near the ruins, and there are other campuses in the city center and Mashava. The campuses include Herbet Chitepo Law School, Robert Mugabe School of Education, Gary Magadzire School of Agriculture and Natural Science, Simon Muzenda School of Arts, and Munhumutapa School of Commerce.

Gallery

• The Conical Tower
• Soapstone Zimbabwe Birds found in the ruins, photographed around 1891 (from J.T. Bent's Ruined Cities of Mashonaland, London, 1892, page 181)
• Modern wooden carvings at the entrance of the Great Zimbabwe
• The Great Enclosure
• The Great Enclosure (close-up)
• The Great Enclosure (distant view)
• The Hill Complex from the Valley
• Wooden lintel in a doorway