The ruins of León Viejo are a World Heritage Site located in Nicaragua. It was the original home of the city of León. Today, the ruins are in the town of Puerto Momotombo, which is part of the La Paz Centro municipality in the León Department. The site is managed by the Nicaraguan Institute of Culture.

León Viejo was established on June 15, 1524, by the Spanish conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. In 1526, he was executed at the town’s Plaza Mayor (Main Square) by Governor Pedrarias Dávila, his lieutenant.

The area was settled by Spanish colonists and originally had a native population of about 15,000 people. It is located on the southwest side of Lake Xolotlán, also called Lake Managua, south of the Momotombo volcano. The region experienced frequent volcanic activity, including major earthquakes in 1594 and 1610.

Although the city was not destroyed during the 1610 earthquake, damage to buildings and ongoing seismic activity led the settlers to vote and decide to move the city about 30 kilometers (20 miles) west to its current location. Over time, the old city was covered by volcanic ash and rocks from the Momotombo volcano.

The ruins of León Viejo were discovered in 1967, and excavations began the following year. These efforts revealed that the city had a layout similar to other cities in the Americas at that time, with a central plaza surrounded by streets arranged in a grid pattern. The ruins cover an area of about 800 meters by 500 meters. Around the Plaza Mayor and nearby streets, 16 ruins have been partially restored.

The city had three monasteries: "La Merced," "San Pedro," and "San Francisco." These were active until October 1559. The ruins of La Merced and San Pedro have been identified, but they have suffered damage from natural disasters over the years. In May 1982, Tropical Storm Alleta damaged the city’s walls. In October 1988, Hurricane Joan caused further harm to the ruins. In October 1998, Hurricane Mitch damaged about 40% of the site, including several buildings, the La Merced convent, and La Fortaleza.

León Viejo is the only 16th-century colonial city in the Americas that has never had its city plan changed. This fact was a key reason it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000.

History of local archaeology

The conquistadors discovered the country was home to many towns where people were active in trade and peaceful work. Dr. Berendt, an explorer and expert on Central American indigenous people, used linguistic studies by himself and American diplomat Ephraim George Squier (1849), along with traditions recorded by Oviedo, Torquemada, and Herrera, to conclude that the Cholutecas, Chorotega, Dirianes, and Orotinas were descendants of people who moved from Cholula, Mexico. These groups lived in most of the country, from the Gulf of Fonseca to Nicoya. Their territory was interrupted near the modern city of Leon by the Marabios and again by an Aztec colony in the narrow strip of land between the Pacific and Lake Nicaragua, as well as the lake’s islands. The king and his most recent national capital were named Nicarao (as stated in a speech given by Dr. C. H. Berendt to the American Geographical Society on July 10, 1876). The people who lived there left many remains of their culture, such as burial mounds and cemeteries.

In 1987, Elphidio Ortega, an advisor to the Organization of American States (OAS), dug 14 holes in the ground to study the area. Unlike earlier researchers, he believed the colonial settlement was not built on an original native site but next to a prehispanic town. Lourdes Dominguez, a Cuban researcher, studied 12 holes outside the boundaries of some structures and found over 1,100 pieces of pottery. She argued that León Viejo was built on a prehispanic settlement because of the many ceramic items found there. This idea contradicted Ortega’s conclusion that the colonial city was built beside an indigenous settlement, not on top of it.

In 1996, Devora Ederman Cornavaca, a graduate student at the University of California, Los Angeles, received permission from Nicaragua’s Institute of Cultural Heritage (INC) to dig in León Viejo to study how Spanish society affected local populations. The first dig near the city’s current edge found evidence of a possible blacksmith workshop. The second dig was on an agricultural field south of León Viejo, now part of the site’s protected area. However, the final report of this research has not been published. Cornavaca noted that the Spanish settlement was located outside the original native town in the area (Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia, by Susan Toby Evans and David L. Webster, pages 401–402).

Investigation

The Department of Anthropological Research at the National Museum of Nicaragua (MNN) conducted excavations and archaeological studies in León Viejo, digging trenches that were 8 meters long and 2 meters wide, aligned from north to south.

The materials found during the excavations included ceramics, porcelain, metal items, remains of animals, and human bones. A piece of a musical instrument, possibly a flute made from a human bone, was discovered alongside other ancient materials. E. Espinoza, in an article about "Shamanism" in prehispanic Nicaragua, noted that German archaeologist G. Haberland found a musical object linked to human remains in a burial area, likely belonging to a shaman. This suggests that such items may have been used in rituals or ceremonies.

In the cathedral, a prehispanic female skull with signs of trepanation (a type of surgery) was uncovered. This is one of the few recorded examples of trepanation in Nicaraguan archaeology.

The site contained many pottery fragments, stone tools made of chalcedony and basalt, and pieces of prismatic knives made of obsidian, which may have been imported from various parts of Central America. These findings show that trade occurred among prehispanic communities. Obsidian was highly valued and used for making tools for daily and ceremonial purposes.

In the east part of grid 3D, the top 20 cm of soil had already been removed. The next 40 cm showed similar conditions, at the end of the second layer. The soil is a mix of volcanic sand, clay, and broken rock called pumice, giving it a white or yellowish color and a very soft texture.

Because of the soil’s softness, it was difficult to determine the shape of the burial. No special arrangements were found, but the head rested on small volcanic stones.

The burial was unusual. The skull was positioned on the south side, as if looking toward the Momotombo mountain or the lake. The individual’s right hand had bones that rested on the chest and facial bones, as if covering the face. The bones of the hands, arms, and other parts were connected to the collarbone and left shoulder blade. It is possible the person was buried in an extended position, and the body was placed when stiff, causing the hand to rest on the face. The skull had a hole on the left side, likely from a surgical procedure called trepanation, used to treat illness. A set of holes caused by a bone condition called osteoporosis was also observed using a magnifying tool (Personal communication with Dr. Henry Guerzten, Pathology Professor at the University of Virginia, USA).

The skeleton was mostly intact and well-preserved. Measurements of the skull bones were 22 to 23 cm, and other bones, such as the pelvis, femur, and shinbone, ranged from 55 to 56 cm, 42 cm, and 34 cm, respectively. Based on this, the individual was estimated to be between 1.50 and 1.55 meters tall. The bones suggest the person was a young woman, aged 25 to 30 years. All teeth were in place, and the shape of the front teeth indicates the individual belonged to the Imabite or Chorotega indigenous group. Near the pelvis, bones of the lower body were found, and near the head, bones from another person’s upper body were discovered. The remains appear to belong to a mature male.

The burial location was not near the main altar but in another area of the church. It is unclear whether the burial was disturbed during the cathedral’s construction or if the body remained in its original position.

Archaeological evidence shows that other human remains were disturbed, but not the individual found in grid 3D. If this person belonged to the prehispanic population, their orientation may have been linked to a ritual, ceremony, or offering to a god, such as the god of the mountain or the volcano. Prehispanic people feared volcanoes but also honored them, believing that high places connected them to their gods.

Researchers compared burial practices in Europe and the Americas. As noted by Goodwin (1945), burial customs are closely tied to traditions, and the position and direction of the body can reveal cultural group characteristics. However, as Ucko (1969) pointed out, interpreting burials can be challenging. Marija (1956) noted that burial types varied widely in prehistoric times, though interpretations are not always clear.

Stone artifacts, including obsidian knives (made from volcanic glass), chalcedony, and remains of small mammals, reptiles, birds, and fish, were found. Some of these items were associated with human bones. Indigenous groups living near the city, possibly part of a large settlement with about 15,000 people, may have used these materials.

A second burial was located between the southern (C-1A) and northern (C-1B) sections of the grid. The body was tilted slightly toward the northwest, with the feet positioned below the first step of the altar.

This burial was found beneath the remains of Fray Francisco Mendavia, the second Archbishop of Nicaragua, who arrived in 1540 and was buried between 80 and 100 cm deep near the cathedral’s altar. Bones beneath