Palenque, also known as Lakamha in the Itzaʼ language, was a Maya city-state in southern Mexico that fell out of use in the 8th century. The ruins of Palenque date from about 226 BC to around 799 AD. After its decline, the city was covered by trees such as cedar, mahogany, and sapodilla. However, it has since been explored and restored. Palenque is located near the Usumacinta River in the Mexican state of Chiapas, approximately 130 km (81 miles) south of Ciudad del Carmen, and 150 meters (490 feet) above sea level. It is close to the modern town of Palenque, Chiapas. The area has an average temperature of 26°C (79°F) and receives about 2,160 millimeters (85 inches) of rain each year.

Palenque is a medium-sized site, smaller than Tikal, Chichen Itza, or Copán. However, it is known for some of the most beautiful architecture, sculptures, roof combs, and bas-relief carvings made by the Maya. Much of Palenque’s history has been learned by studying hieroglyphic writings on its monuments. Historians have identified a long list of rulers from the 5th century and have learned much about Palenque’s conflicts with other cities, such as Calakmul and Toniná. The most famous ruler of Palenque was Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal, also known as Pacal the Great. His tomb was discovered in the Temple of the Inscriptions. By 2005, about 2.5 km (0.97 square miles) of the site had been explored, but it is estimated that less than 10% of the city has been studied, with over a thousand structures still hidden under the jungle. In 2017, Palenque received 920,470 visitors.

History

Mythological beings using different symbols in their titles show that Palenque had a long and complex history. For example, Kʼukʼ Bahlam I, believed to be the founder of the Palenque dynasty, was called Toktan Ajaw in the Temple of the Foliated Cross.

The famous buildings in Palenque today were likely rebuilt after attacks by the city of Calakmul and its allies in 599 and 611. One of the most important figures in rebuilding Palenque and bringing new art and architecture to the city was Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal (Pacal the Great), who ruled from 615 to 683. He is known through his tomb, called the Temple of the Inscriptions, because it has a long text carved into its walls. When Alberto Ruz Lhuillier discovered Pakal’s tomb, it was the richest and best-preserved burial found in the Americas at that time. This remained true until other rich burials, like those in Peru and at Copán and Calakmul, were discovered.

In addition to the attention Pakal’s tomb brought to Palenque, the city is important for having many hieroglyphic writings created during the reigns of Pakal, his son Kʼinich Kan Bahlam II, and his grandson Kʼinich Akal Moʼ Naab. It is also where scholars like Heinrich Berlin, Linda Schele, and Peter Mathews first made a list of rulers for any Maya city. The work of scholars such as Tatiana Proskouriakoff and others started serious studies of the ancient Maya that continue today. The many pictures and writings found in Palenque have also helped researchers learn about Maya myths and religious practices.

A list of known Maya rulers of Palenque and their reigns:

The first known king of Bʼaakal was Kʼuk Balam (Quetzal Jaguar), who ruled for four years starting in 431. After him, a king nicknamed "Casper" by archaeologists ruled. The next two kings were likely Casper’s sons. Little was known about the first of these, Bʼutz Aj Sak Chiik, until 1994, when a tablet was found describing a ritual for the king. This tablet mentioned his successor, Ahkal Moʼ Naab I, as a teenage prince, suggesting a family connection. For unknown reasons, Ahkal Moʼ Naab I had great influence, and later kings were proud to be his descendants.

When Ahkal Moʼ Naab I died in 524, there was a four-year period without a king before the next ruler was crowned in 529. Kʼan Joy Chitam I ruled for 36 years. His sons, Ahkal Moʼ Naab II and Kʼan Bʼalam I, were the first kings to use the title "Kinich," meaning "the great sun." This title was later used by other kings. Kʼan Bʼalam was succeeded in 583 by Yohl Ikʼnal, who was likely his daughter. Inscriptions in Palenque record a battle during her rule when troops from Calakmul attacked and destroyed the city, an event with no known precedent. This happened in 599.

A second attack by Calakmul occurred in 611, during the rule of Aj Ne' Yohl Mat, son of Yohl Ikʼnal. This time, the king of Calakmul entered Palenque himself, causing a major disaster followed by political instability. Aj Ne' Yohl Mat died in 612.

Bʼaakal entered the Late Classic period during the disorder caused by these defeats. The carved panels at the Temple of the Inscriptions describe that important religious ceremonies were not held in 613, and the text says: "Lost is the divine lady, lost is the king." No records of the government during this time have been found.

It is believed that after Aj Ne' Yohl Mat’s death, Janaab Pakal (also called Pakal I) took power through a political agreement. He acted as king but was never crowned. He was succeeded in 612 by his daughter, Queen Sak Kʼukʼ, who ruled for three years until her son was old enough to rule. From then on, the dynasty was restored, and Bʼaakal regained its former glory.

The grandson of Janaab Pakal is the most famous Maya king, Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal, also known as Pakal the Great. He began ruling at age 12 after his mother, Sak Kuk, stepped down after three years. Pakal the Great ruled Palenque from 615 to 683, and his mother remained influential for the first 25 years of his reign. She may have ruled together with him. He is known as the favorite of the gods and brought Palenque to new levels of splendor, even though the city was at a low point when he took power. Pakal married Lady Tzakbu Ajaw (also called Ahpo-Hel) of Oktán in 624 and had at least three children.

Most of Palenque’s palaces and temples were built during his rule, and the city flourished more than ever, surpassing Tikal. The central complex, called The Palace, was enlarged and remodeled several times, notably in 654, 661, and 668. A text in this structure describes how Palenque formed alliances with Tikal and Yaxchilan and captured six enemy kings. Little of the text has been translated.

After Pakal’s death in 683, his older son, Kʼinich Kan Bʼalam, became king and was succeeded in 702 by his brother, Kʼinich Kʼan Joy Chitam II. Kʼinich Kan Bʼalam continued his father’s architectural and sculptural projects, including finishing the construction of Pakal’s tomb. Pakal’s sarcophagus, made for a tall man, contained the richest collection of jade found in a Maya tomb. A jade mosaic mask covered his face, and a jade suit, with each piece hand-carved and held together by gold wire, adorned his body.

Kʼinich Kan Bʼalam I also started ambitious projects, such as the Group of the Crosses. Many portraits of this king were found in sculptures from his time. His brother continued his work, rebuilding and expanding the north side of the Palace. Because of the

Art and architecture

Important structures at Palenque include:

The Temple of the Inscriptions was started around 675 as a monument for Hanab-Pakal. The temple’s upper part contains the second-longest carved text found in the Maya world (the longest is the Hieroglyphic Stairway at Copan). This text records about 180 years of Palenque’s history from the 4th through 12th Kʼatun. The main part of the text describes rituals from the time of Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal’s Kʼatun period, focusing on the city’s patron deities, known as the Palenque Triad or individually as GI, GII, and GI.

The pyramid is 60 meters wide, 42.5 meters deep, and 27.2 meters high. The top temple is 25.5 meters wide, 10.5 meters deep, and 11.4 meters high. The largest stones used in the pyramid weigh 12 to 15 tons. The total volume of the pyramid and temple is 32,500 cubic meters.

In 1952, Alberto Ruz Lhuillier removed a stone slab from the temple’s back room, revealing a passageway (sealed before the city was abandoned and later reopened by archaeologists) that led through a long stairway to Pakal’s tomb. The tomb is notable for its large carved sarcophagus, the ornaments with Pakal, and the stucco carvings on the tomb walls. A special feature of the tomb is the psychoduct, which connects the tomb to the entrance through a hole in the stone. This structure may represent the Maya belief about the soul’s departure at death, as described in inscriptions using the phrase ochb'ihaj sak ikʼil (the white breath road-entered). This discovery showed that the temple served both religious and funerary purposes for the first time.

The sarcophagus lid shows Pakal as a form of the Maya maize god emerging from the underworld.

The temple also has a duct structure that archaeologists have not fully understood. Some believe it aligns with the winter solstice, allowing sunlight to shine on Pakal’s tomb.

The Temple of the Cross, Temple of the Sun, and Temple of the Foliated Cross are three temples on top of step pyramids. Each has detailed carvings in their inner chambers showing two figures offering ritual objects to a central icon. Earlier ideas suggested the smaller figure was Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal and the larger was Kʼinich Kan Bʼahlam. However, recent research shows both figures are Kʼinich Kan Bʼahlam: one depicts him at age six during a rite of passage, and the other shows him becoming king at age 48. These temples were named by early explorers; the cross-like carvings actually represent the tree of creation from Maya mythology.

The Palace is a large complex of connected buildings and courtyards built over four centuries on an artificial terrace. It was used by the Mayan elite for government work, entertainment, and religious ceremonies. The Palace is located in the center of the ancient city.

Inside the Palace are many sculptures and carvings that have been preserved. A unique feature is the four-story Observation Tower, which has a roof shaped like a mansard. The A-shaped corbel arch is a common design in the Palace, requiring thick walls and creating high ceilings with narrow passages. The Palace had many large baths and saunas supplied with fresh water through an intricate system. A stone aqueduct diverted the Otulum River to flow under the main plaza. The Palace is the largest building in Palenque, measuring 97 meters by 73 meters at its base.

• The Temple of the Skull has a carved skull on one of its pillars.
• Temple XIII contains the Tomb of the Red Queen, an unknown noble woman, possibly Pakal’s wife, discovered in 1994. Her remains were covered in bright red cinnabar powder.
• The Temple of the Jaguar (also called the Temple of the Beautiful Relief) is 200 meters south of the main temple group. It is named for its detailed carving of a king seated on a jaguar-shaped throne.
• Structure XII has a carving of the God of Death.
• The Temple of the Count is another elegant Palenque temple. It got its name because early explorer Jean-Frédéric Waldeck lived there and claimed to be a count.

The site also includes other temples, tombs, and homes for the elite, some far from the city center. There is a court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame and a stone bridge over the Otulum River near the aqueduct.

Modern investigations

After de la Nada described the ruins briefly, they were not studied again until 1773, when Don Ramon de Ordoñez y Aguilar examined Palenque and sent a report to the Captain General in Antigua Guatemala. In 1784, another examination found the ruins to be of special interest. Two years later, surveyor and architect Antonio Bernasconi was sent with a small military force led by Colonel Antonio del Río to study the site more closely. Del Río’s soldiers broke through several walls to explore the area, causing damage to the Palace. Bernasconi created the first map of the site and made copies of some bas-relief figures and sculptures. In 1807, draughtsman Luciano Castañeda made additional drawings. A book titled Descriptions of the Ruins of an Ancient City, published in London in 1822, was based on reports and engravings from Bernasconi and Castañeda’s work. Two more books in 1834 included descriptions and drawings from the same sources.

In 1831, Juan Galindo visited Palenque and reported to the Central American government. He was the first to notice that the figures in Palenque’s ancient art resembled local Native Americans. Some earlier explorers, even years later, believed the site was connected to distant groups like the Egyptians, Polynesians, or the Lost Tribes of Israel.

Starting in 1832, Jean-Frédéric Waldeck spent two years at Palenque making many drawings, though most were published in 1866. In 1840, Patrick Walker and Herbert Caddy visited Palenque on behalf of the governor of British Honduras. Later that year, John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood explored the site and published an illustrated account the following year, which was more detailed than earlier reports.

In 1858, Désiré Charnay took the first photographs of Palenque and returned in 1881–1882. In 1890–1891, Alfred Maudslay stayed at the ruins, photographing much of the art and inscriptions. He made paper and plaster molds of many inscriptions, created detailed maps and drawings, and set a high standard for future research. Maudslay learned the technique of making papier-mâché molds from Désiré Charnay.

Before Frans Blom of Tulane University visited in 1923, several other expeditions studied the ruins. Blom created better maps of the main site and previously ignored areas and submitted a report to the Mexican government about ways to preserve the ruins.

From 1949 to 1952, Alberto Ruz Lhuillier led excavations and repairs at Palenque for Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). He was the first person in over a thousand years to see the tomb of Pacal the Great. Ruz worked for four years at the Temple of the Inscriptions before uncovering the tomb. Additional INAH work continued into the 1970s, led by Jorge Acosta.

In 1973, the first Palenque Mesa Redonda (Round Table) conference was held, inspired by Merle Greene Robertson. These conferences brought leading Mayanists together every few years to discuss new discoveries at Palenque. Meanwhile, Robertson studied all the art at Palenque, including recording the colors on the sculptures.

In the 1970s, a small museum was built at the site.

In the last 15 to 20 years, more of the site has been explored, but archaeologists estimate that only 10% of the city has been uncovered.

In 2010, researchers from Pennsylvania State University, Christopher Duffy and Kirk French, identified the Piedras Bolas Aqueduct as a pressurized aqueduct, the earliest known in the New World. It is a spring-fed channel on steep land with a narrow outlet that forces water to flow forcefully to a height of 6 meters (20 feet). They could not determine the purpose of this structure.

In June 2022, archaeologists from Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) announced the discovery of a 1,300-year-old nine-inch-tall stucco head statue in a pond. The statue is believed to represent a young Hun Hunahpu, the Maya’s mythological maize god. Researchers identified it based on its semi-shaved haircut, which resembles ripe corn. They think the Maya may have placed a large stone statue over the pond to symbolize the entrance to the underworld. According to archaeologist Arnoldo González Cruz, the Maya may have broken the stucco and filled the pond with animal remains, including pottery fragments, carved bones, shells, obsidian arrowheads, beads, vegetables, and other items, to symbolically close the pool.

Paleontological significance

Research inside the temples of Palenque has found many well-preserved fossils of marine fish and invertebrates in the limestone slabs used to build the temples and in the old quarries where the limestone was mined. People knew about these fossils since the 19th century, but scientists and archaeologists studied them more closely starting in the 2000s. These fossils are from the Tenejapa-Lacandón Formation of the Early Paleocene, a time shortly after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event. They show how marine ecosystems recovered after the extinction, including the early development of modern coral reefs. The fossils include some of the first examples of modern reef fish, such as serranids (Paleoserranus), damselfish (Chaychanus), and syngnathiforms (Eekaulostomus), as well as some of the last members of groups that no longer exist, like pycnodontids. This ecosystem existed even though the area was near the impact site of the Chicxulub meteor, which caused the extinction. The Maya people who lived there seemed to know about these fossils and collected them, using fossil shark teeth and ray spines from the nearby Miocene Tulijá Formation as cutting tools. They also painted some fish skeletons and cut slabs to display the fossils more clearly, making them among the earliest known paleontologists.

Palenque National Park

Palenque National Park was created in 1981 by the Mexican government. It covers an area of 17.72 square kilometers, which includes the ancient city and the hills to the south. The park has a family campsite.