The Zhoukoudian Peking Man Site (周口店北京人遗址), also spelled as Choukoutien, is a cave system located in the suburban Fangshan District of Beijing. It has provided many archaeological finds, including one of the first examples of Homo erectus (Homo erectus pekinensis), known as Peking Man, and a collection of bones from the giant short-faced hyena, Pachycrocuta brevirostris.

Because scientists have different interpretations of the evidence, the dates for when Peking Man lived at this site vary. Some estimates suggest 700,000–200,000 years ago, others 670,000–470,000 years ago, and some say no earlier than 530,000 years ago.

The Peking Man Site was first discovered by Johan Gunnar Andersson in 1921. Otto Zdansky conducted the first excavations in 1921 and 1923, uncovering two human teeth. These teeth were later identified by Davidson Black as belonging to a new species, leading to further excavations. Fissures in the limestone layers from the middle Pleistocene period have revealed remains of about 45 individuals, along with animal bones and stone tools, such as flakes and chopping tools.

The oldest animal remains date back to about 690,000 years ago, and the oldest tools are from 670,000 years ago. Another source suggests the tools are no older than 530,000 years. During the Upper Paleolithic period, the site was used again, and remains of Homo sapiens, along with their stone and bone tools, were also found in the Upper Cave.

The crater Choukoutien on asteroid 243 Ida is named after this location. The caves are located in Zhoukoudian Town, Fangshan District, southwest of central Beijing.

Excavation history

Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson first explored the region in 1918 near an area called Chicken-bone Hill, where locals had mistakenly identified rodent fossils. However, it was not until 1921 that Andersson and American paleontologist Walter W. Granger were directed to Dragon Bone Hill by local quarry workers. Andersson noticed unusual white quartz at the site and recognized it as a promising location to search for early human remains.

In 1921 and 1923, Andersson’s assistant, Austrian paleontologist Otto Zdansky, conducted excavations at the site. He uncovered many fossils, which were sent to Uppsala University in Sweden for study. In 1926, Andersson announced the discovery of two human molars among the materials. The following year, Zdansky published his findings, identifying the teeth as Homo sp.

Fossils of Canis variabilis, sometimes called the Zhoukidian wolf, were found at the Zhoukoudian cave system in 1934 by Pei Wenzhong. Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black, who worked at Peking Union Medical College, supported Andersson and Zdansky’s discoveries. He requested funding from the Rockefeller Foundation to systematically excavate the site. In 1927, the Zhoukoudian Project began under the supervision of Chinese archaeologist Li Jie.

That same year, Swedish paleontologist Anders Birger Bohlin uncovered a tooth, which Black identified as belonging to a new species, Sinanthropus pekinensis. In 1928, Black found more fossils of this species, including teeth, a juvenile jaw, and an adult jaw with three teeth. These discoveries helped Black secure additional funding to build a research laboratory.

In 1928, the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of China’s Geological Survey was established at Peking Union Medical College with help from Chinese geologists Ding Wenjiang and Weng Wenhao. Black served as the laboratory’s honorary director, while excavations continued under Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian and anthropologists Pei Wenzhong and Jia Lanpo.

Conditions at the site were difficult. Scientists traveled to the site on mules and stayed in caravansaries. In 1929, Pei discovered the first skullcap in a 40-meter crevasse during cold weather, using a hammer and candle. A second skullcap was found nearby in 1930, and by 1932, nearly 100 workers were working at the site daily.

Despite the challenges, researchers like French paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin and French archaeologist Henri Breuil visited the site. Breuil confirmed the presence of stone tools in 1931, and evidence of fire use was accepted that same year.

Davidson Black died in 1934 while working at his office, with a skullcap from the site on his desk. German anthropologist Franz Weidenreich took over as the laboratory’s honorary director, and excavations continued. Three additional skullcaps were found in 1936.

By 1937, excavations had uncovered 200 human fossils from over 40 individuals, including five nearly complete skullcaps. Work stopped due to Japan’s invasion of China. Japanese forces reportedly tortured and killed workers at the site.

In 1941, most of the fossils were lost during transport to safety. Weidenreich had made copies of the fossils to preserve their details. Excavations resumed in 1949, uncovering new fossils, including five teeth and bone fragments. In 1950, a third premolar was found in materials sent to Uppsala in 1921 and 1923.

In 1959, the Peking Man Site was named “Type section of cave deposits of Middle Pleistocene in North China” by China’s National Committee of Stratigraphy. A mandible fragment was also discovered.

In 1966, Pei’s excavations uncovered a premolar and skull fragments that matched those from earlier discoveries. The only remaining nearly complete skullcap was reconstructed.

From 1972 to 1973, excavations at Locality 4 in Zhoukoudian uncovered a Homo sapiens premolar. Modern dating techniques confirm the site was occupied between 230,000 and 500,000 years ago.

Excavation sites

Locality 1, also called the Peking Man Site, was the first to be discovered in 1921 by local quarry workers. The site was originally a natural limestone cave, but the roof had collapsed long ago, leaving a layer of broken rock and rubble over the deposits. Early digging in 1921 and 1923 found signs of human life from 200,000 to 500,000 years ago. The cave was excavated from 1927 to 1937, uncovering 200 human fossils (from 40 people) identified as Homo erectus, more than 10,000 stone tools, several ash layers showing early humans used fire, and fossils from over 200 animal species. Most of these items were lost in 1941 during the Japanese occupation and have never been found again. Excavations began again in 1949 and continued to find fossils and tools, making this site one of the richest sources of materials from the Middle Pleistocene era.

Thirteen layers have been dug at the site to a depth of nearly 40 meters. Layers below these have been tested but do not contain fossils or stone tools and have not been excavated.

This cave, located on the upper part of Dragon Bone Hill, was discovered in 1930 and excavated from 1933 to 1934. During this time, the roof and the north-facing entrance were removed. Evidence of human life in the cave dates back 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. The cave had an upper area used for living and a lower area used for burials. A small space on the lower level acted as a natural trap for animals. Items found included three human skulls and remains from at least eight individuals identified as early humans similar to modern humans, tools and ornaments made of stone and bone, and many animal bones, including full skeletons of large mammals caught in the trap. White powder found around the remains on the lower level showed that people there practiced burial rituals.

The age of the Upper Cave specimen was updated to 39,000–36,300 years ago, and it is linked to modern humans.

More than 20 fossil sites have been studied in Zhoukoudian so far.

Gallery

• Peking Man Site (Locality 1)
• Locality 3
• Locality 4
• Locality 5
• Locality 12
• Locality 15
• Skull Discovery Site (1966)