The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a collection of Hindu and Digambara Jain temples located in the Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh, India. These monuments are approximately 46 kilometers (28.6 miles) from Chhatarpur city, the district’s main office, 283 kilometers (177 miles) from Gwalior, 175 kilometers (109 miles) southeast of Jhansi, 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) from Khajwa, and 9 kilometers (5.6 miles) from Rajnagar. The temples are known for their Nagara-style architecture and for having some sculptures that show scenes of love and relationships.
Most of the Khajuraho temples were built between 885 CE and 1000 CE by the Chandela dynasty. Historical records indicate that the temple site had 85 temples by the 12th century, covering an area of 20 square kilometers (7.7 square miles). Today, only about 25 temples remain, spread over six square kilometers (2.3 square miles). Among these, the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is especially famous for its many detailed sculptures, which show the artistic skill and symbolism of ancient Indian culture. The temple complex was forgotten and covered by jungle until 1838, when Captain T.S. Burt, a British engineer, visited the site and shared his findings in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
When the monuments were built, young men in the area lived in simple homes as brahmacharyas (bachelors) until they became adults. The sculptures helped them learn about the responsibilities of being a household member. The Khajuraho temples were built together but were dedicated to two religions, Hinduism and Jainism. This shows that people in the region respected and accepted different religious beliefs. Because of their unique architecture, the variety of temple styles, and their connection to the Chandela civilization, the Khajuraho monuments were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1986.
Etymology
The name Khajuraho, or Kharjuravāhaka, comes from ancient Sanskrit. The word "kharjura" (खर्जूर) means date palm, and "vāhaka" (वाहक) means "one who carries" or "bearer." Local stories say the temples once had two golden date-palm trees at their entrance, but these were missing when the temples were rediscovered. Desai explains that Kharjuravāhaka can also mean "scorpion bearer," a symbolic name for the god Shiva, who wears snake and scorpion garlands in his powerful form.
In the 1850s and 1860s, Cunningham organized and recorded information about the temples in a clear way. His system is still used today. He divided the temples into three groups: the Western group near Lakshmana, the Eastern group near Javeri, and the Southern group near Duladeva.
Location
The Khajuraho monuments are located in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, in Chatarpur district, about 620 kilometers (385 miles) southeast of New Delhi. The temples are near a small town also called Khajuraho, which had a population of about 24,481 people according to the 2011 Census.
Khajuraho is connected by Civil Aerodrome Khajuraho (IATA Code: HJR), which offers flights to Delhi, Agra, Varanasi, and Mumbai. The site is also linked by Indian Railways, with the railway station located about six kilometers from the entrance to the monuments.
The monuments are approximately ten kilometers away from National Highway 75, which runs east-west, and about 50 kilometers from the city of Chhatarpur. Chhatarpur is connected to the state capital, Bhopal, by National Highway 86, which runs southwest to northeast.
The 10th-century Bhand Deva Temple in Rajasthan was built in a style similar to the Khajuraho monuments and is often called "Little Khajuraho."
History
The Khajuraho group of monuments was built during the rule of the Chandela dynasty. Building began soon after the Chandela dynasty gained power and continued across their kingdom, which later became known as Bundelkhand. Most temples were constructed during the reigns of two Hindu kings, Yashovarman and Dhanga. Yashovarman’s work is best seen in the Lakshmana Temple. The Vishvanatha Temple shows the achievements of King Dhanga. The largest and most famous temple still standing today, the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, was built during the reign of King Vidyadhara. Temple inscriptions indicate that many surviving temples were completed between 970 and 1030 CE, with additional temples built in the following years.
The Khajuraho temples are located about 35 miles from the medieval city of Mahoba, the capital of the Chandela dynasty, in the Kalinjar region. In ancient and medieval writings, the Chandela kingdom was called Jijhoti, Jejahoti, Chih-chi-to, and Jejakabhukti.
The first written record of Khajuraho was made in 641 CE by Xuanzang, a Chinese traveler who described seeing many inactive Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples with hundreds of priests. In 1022 CE, the Persian historian Abu Rihan-al-Biruni mentioned Khajuraho during his travels with Mahmud of Ghazni. He called Khajuraho the capital of Jajahuti. Mahmud’s attack on Kalinjar failed, and a peace agreement was reached when the Hindu king paid a ransom to end the attack.
The Khajuraho temples remained in use until the end of the 12th century. This changed in the 13th century when the army of the Delhi Sultanate, led by Muslim Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak, captured the Chandela kingdom. About 100 years later, in 1335 CE, the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta visited Khajuraho and referred to the temples as “Kajarra.”
From the 13th to the 18th century, the central Indian region, where Khajuraho is located, was controlled by Muslim dynasties. During this time, some temples were damaged, and many were left in disrepair. In 1495 CE, Sikandar Lodi’s campaign to destroy temples included Khajuraho. However, the temples’ remote location helped protect them from further destruction. Over time, plants and trees grew around the temples.
In the 1830s, local Hindus led a British surveyor named T.S. Burt to the temples, which brought them back to the attention of the world. Soon after, Alexander Cunningham reported that the temples were still used secretly by yogis, and thousands of Hindus visited during the annual Shivaratri festival in February or March, based on the lunar calendar. In 1852, F.C. Maisey created the earliest drawings of the Khajuraho temples.
Description
The temple site is located in the Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local story said that the Hindu god Shiva and other gods enjoyed visiting the impressive hill formations in the Kalinjar area. The center of this region is Khajuraho, which is surrounded by local hills and rivers. The temple complex follows the ancient Hindu tradition of building temples where gods are believed to pray.
The temples are grouped near water, a common feature of Hindu temples. Today, the area includes water bodies such as Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal), and Khudar Nadi (a river). Local stories say the temple complex once had 64 water bodies, and 56 have been found by archaeologists so far.
All temples, except one called Chaturbhuja, face the sunrise. This is a symbolic feature common in Hindu temples. The layout of the temples includes both masculine and feminine deities and symbols, showing how they depend on each other. The artwork highlights the four goals of life considered important in Hinduism: dharma (duty), kama (desire), artha (wealth), and moksha (liberation).
Of the surviving temples, six are dedicated to Shiva, eight to Vishnu and his related deities, one to Ganesha, one to the Sun god, and three to Jain Tirthankars. For some ruins, there is not enough evidence to confidently assign them to specific deities.
An overall look at the site shows that the Hindu design principle of squares and circles is used in the layout of each temple. The area is also arranged in three triangles that form a pentagon. Scholars believe this reflects Hindu symbolism for three realms or trilokinatha and five cosmic elements or panchbhuteshvara. The site emphasizes Shiva, who is seen as the force that destroys and renews life, controlling the cycle of time, creation, and destruction.
The temples have many intricately carved statues. While they are famous for their erotic sculptures, these scenes make up less than 10% of the artwork. Most of these scenes are not prominent and are balanced with non-sexual images. Visitors must look closely or follow a guide to find them. The art includes many aspects of human life and values important in Hinduism. The images are arranged to express central ideas of Hinduism, including three concepts from Āgamas: Avyakta (the unseen), Vyaktavyakta (the partially seen), and Vyakta (the fully seen).
The Beejamandal temple is currently being excavated. It has been linked to the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the Grahpati Kokalla inscription.
Of all the temples, the Matangeshvara temple is still used for worship. It is a square grid temple with a large lingam (a symbol of Shiva) that is 2.5 meters (8.2 feet) high and 1.1 meters (3.6 feet) in diameter, placed on a platform 7.6 meters (25 feet) wide.
The most visited temple, Kandariya Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500 square feet and a spire (called a shikhara) that rises 116 feet.
The Jain temples are located in the east-southeast area of the Khajuraho monuments.
The Eastern Group includes four major Digambara Jaina temples: the ruined Ghantai Temple, the Pārśvanātha Temple, the Ādinātha Temple, and the Śāntinātha Temple, along with smaller Jaina shrines. Many of these shrines were built on the foundations of older structures or using materials from previous temples.
There are strong signs that the Pārśvanātha and Ādinātha Temples were originally Hindu temples and later converted into Jaina temples by the Jaina community.
The Chausath Yogini Temple has 64 yogini (female deities), while the Ghantai Temple has bells carved on its pillars.
Almost all Khajuraho temples follow a geometric design called vastu-purusha-mandala. This design has three parts: Mandala (a circle), Purusha (the universal essence in Hindu tradition), and Vastu (a building or structure).
The design places a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, layered structure around the central area called the garbhagriya, where the deity is located. The spire (shikhara) rises above the garbhagriya. This design is based on Hindu beliefs, myths, and mathematical principles.
The circle of the mandala surrounds the square. The square is seen as divine and symbolic of knowledge, while the circle represents the earthly and natural world. The square is divided into 64 smaller squares called padas.
Most Khajuraho temples use an 8×8 grid (64 padas) called the Manduka Vastupurushamandala. The main deity or lingam is placed in the grid's Brahma padas.
The architecture reflects Hindu beliefs through its form, structure, and arrangement. The halls (mandapas) and artwork are arranged in repeating, symmetrical patterns, even though each image or sculpture is unique. The placement of images is not random but helps express ideas, similar to how words form sentences. This repeating pattern is common in Hindu temples. Many statues and panels have inscriptions, and some poems on temple walls have double meanings made possible by the complexity of Sanskrit.
All Khajuraho temples, except one, face the sunrise, with the entrance on the east side for devotees.
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each temple is
Construction
The temples are divided into three areas: western, eastern, and southern.
The Khajuraho temples are built from sandstone, with a granite base that is mostly hidden. Builders used interlocking stone pieces instead of mortar. These joints needed to fit perfectly. Large stones, some weighing up to 20 tons, were used for columns and architraves. In the 19th century, some repairs used brick and mortar, but these materials aged faster and now look different from the original stones.
The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region has high-quality sandstone that is easy to carve. The remaining sculptures show fine details, such as hair, nails, and jewelry.
During the television show Lost Worlds (History Channel), Alex Evans carved a small stone sculpture that took about 60 days to complete. This helped estimate the effort needed for the temples. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner tested quarrying limestone, which took 12 workers 22 days to extract about 400 tons of stone. Their findings suggest that hundreds of skilled sculptors were needed to build the temples.
Chronology
The Khajuraho temples include structures from Vaishnavism, a part of Hinduism; Saivism, another part of Hinduism; and Jainism. Each religion makes up about a third of the temples. Studies by archaeologists show that all three types of temples were being built around the same time in the late 10th century and were used together. Historian Will Durant notes that this shows respect and acceptance of different religious beliefs in Hindu and Jain traditions. In each group of temples, larger temples were surrounded by smaller ones in a grid pattern, similar to some Hindu temples in Angkor Wat, Parambaran, and South India.
The largest remaining Shiva temple is Khandarya Mahadeva, and the largest Vaishnava group includes Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra temples.
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is 109 feet long and 60 feet wide, rising 116 feet above the ground and 88 feet above its base. The central area has three rows of carved figures, with more than 870 statues, most about half the size of a person (2.5 to 3 feet tall). The temple’s spire has a fractal design that repeats itself.
Arts and sculpture
The Khajuraho temples include many types of artwork, with about 10% of the carvings showing sexual or erotic themes on the inside and outside of the temples. Some temples with two layers of walls have small erotic carvings on the outer side of the inner wall. Some scholars believe these carvings show tantric sexual practices. Others explain that the erotic art is part of the Hindu tradition, which sees kama (desire) as an important and natural part of life. Hindu temples often include symbolic or direct depictions of this. James McConnachie, in his book about the Kamasutra, describes the sexual-themed carvings at Khajuraho as "the highest point of erotic art."
The temples have thousands of statues and artworks. For example, the Kandarya Mahadeva Temple has more than 870 carvings. About 10% of these carvings include sexual themes and poses. A common mistake is thinking the carvings show sex between gods, but the kama art actually shows different kinds of human sexual expressions. Most of the artwork shows scenes from daily life, stories from myths, and symbols of important secular and spiritual values in Hindu tradition. Examples include women applying makeup, musicians playing, potters, farmers, and other people from the medieval era. These scenes are placed on the outer parts of the temples, which is typical in Hindu temple design.
The artwork in the Khajuraho temples includes symbolic meaning. Many Hindu values are shown in different ways. Even the kama scenes, when viewed with the carvings before and after them, often show spiritual ideas like moksha (freedom from the cycle of life and death). As Stella Kramrisch wrote in 1976:
— Stella Kramrisch, 1976
The Khajuraho temples are one example of the many artistic styles that developed in the Rajput kingdoms of India between the 8th and 10th centuries. At the same time, poets and dramatists wrote works like Prabodhacandrodaya, Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika, and Kavyamimansa. Some themes from these writings are carved into the Khajuraho temples. Some carvings dedicated to Vishnu include Vyalas, which are hybrid creatures with lion-like bodies. These creatures also appear in other Indian temples. Other hybrid carvings include Vrik Vyala (a mix of wolf and lion) and Yali (a mix of elephant and lion). These Vyalas may symbolize the combination of powers from two different animals.
Tourism and cultural events
The temples in Khajuraho are divided into three groups: the Eastern group, the Southern group, and the Western group. Only the Western group offers an audio-guided tour that allows visitors to explore seven to eight temples. An audio-guided tour created by the Archaeological Survey of India includes a description of the temples' history and design.
The Khajuraho Dance Festival takes place every year in February. It showcases classical Indian dances performed near the Chitragupta or Vishwanath Temples.
Each evening, the Khajuraho temple complex hosts a son et lumière (sound and light) show. The first performance is in English, and the second is in Hindi. The show occurs on open lawns within the temple complex and has received mixed feedback from visitors.