Bukhara's history dates back thousands of years, starting with Indo-Aryan people settling in the area. Bukhara is now the capital of the Bukhara Region (viloyat) in Uzbekistan. It is located on the Silk Road and has been a center for trade, learning, culture, and religion for many years. During the Golden Age of Islam, when the Samanids ruled, Bukhara became the center of learning in the Islamic world. In medieval times, Bukhara was the capital of the Khanate of Bukhara and the birthplace of Imam Bukhari. UNESCO has listed Bukhara's historic center, which includes many mosques and madrassas, as a World Heritage Site. Bukhara was a major center of Persian civilization since the 6th century BCE. The city's buildings and ancient sites are important parts of Central Asian history and art. The Bukhara region was part of the Persian Empire for a long time.
Legends
According to the Iranian epic poem Shahnameh, the city was founded by King Siavash, son of Shah Kai Kavoos, one of the mythical kings from the Pishdadian dynasty. He chose to build the city because of its many rivers, its warm climate, and its position along the Silk Road. According to the legend, Siavash was accused by his stepmother, Sudabeh, of trying to harm her. To prove his innocence, he walked through fire. He survived the flames and crossed the Oxus River (now called the Amu Darya) into Turan. The king of Samarkand, Afrasiab, gave his daughter, Ferganiza (also called Farangis in Persian), to Siavash in marriage. He also gave Siavash a kingdom near the Bukhara oasis. There, Siavash built a fortress called the Ark or Arg (Persian for "citadel") and the surrounding city. Later, Siavash was accused of planning to overthrow his father-in-law and take control of united Iran and Turan. Afrasiab believed this and ordered Siavash’s execution in front of Farangis. He then buried Siavash’s head under the Hay-sellers’ Gate. In response, King Kai Kavoos sent Rostam, a legendary hero, to attack Turan. Rostam killed Afrasiab and returned with Farangis and Siavash’s son, Kay Khusrau, to Persia.
Archaeology
The city was officially established in 500 BCE in the area now known as the Ark. However, the Bukhara oasis was already inhabited long before this time. A Russian archaeologist named E. E. Kuzmina connected the Zaman-Baba culture found in the Bukhara Oasis during the third millennium BCE to the movement of Indo-Aryans across Central Asia. From 3000 BCE, a Bronze Age culture called the Sapalli Culture existed in places like Varakhsha, Vardan, Paykend, and Ramitan. Around 1500 BCE, changes such as drier weather, the use of iron tools, and the arrival of Indo-Aryan nomads caused people to move to the oasis from other areas. The Sapalli people and Indo-Aryans lived together in villages near a large lake and wetlands in the Zeravshan Fan (the Zeravshan River no longer flowed into the Oxus). By 1000 BCE, these groups combined to form a new culture. By 700 BCE, this culture, called Sogdian, became strong in city-states along the Zeravshan Valley. At this time, the lake had filled with silt, and three small protected settlements were built. By 500 BCE, these settlements joined together and were surrounded by a wall, marking the birth of Bukhara.
Persian Empires and Kingdom of Bactria
Bukhara became known in history around 500 BCE as a dependent region or province within the Persian Empire. Over time, it came under the control of Alexander the Great, the Seleucid Empire from the Hellenistic period, the Greco-Bactrians, and the Kushan Empire. During these periods, Bukhara served as a religious center for the worship of Anahita and supported a temple-based economy. Every month, people living near the Zeravshan Fan replaced old statues of the goddess Anahita with new ones during a trade festival held in front of the Mokh Temple. This event was important for ensuring the fertility of the land, which was essential for the survival of people living in the area. Because of these trade festivals, Bukhara became an important center for trade. A large gold coin, the 20-stater of the Greco-Bactrian king Eucratides I (170-145 BCE), the heaviest gold coin ever made in ancient times weighing 169.2 grams, was discovered in Bukhara. It was later collected by Napoleon III, who owned it in the Cabinet des Médailles in Paris.
Sogdiana, Huns and Turkic kaganate
After the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) pushed back northern tribes to protect the Silk Road, trade along this route grew faster. Bukhara, already a wealthy city, became an important market. The silk trade helped Bukhara grow quickly, but this growth stopped around 350 CE. After the Kushan Empire fell, Bukhara was taken over by Hua tribes from the Mongolian steppe, and the city began to decline. However, in the 5th century, many cities and villages in the oasis area grew rapidly. At this time, a wall more than 400 km long was built around the entire oasis.
Between 563 and 567, the Turks of the Turkic Kaganate defeated the Hephtalites near Bukhara, making Bukhara dependent on the Turkic Kaganate. Information about Turkish rule in Sogdia dates back to the 580s. In 585–586, a rebellion called the Abruy uprising happened in Bukhara. The Turkic prince Il Arslan put it down. After this, the Turkic ruler Yang Soukh tegin was recognized as the leader of the Bukhara oasis. His son, Nili, ruled Bukhara from 589 to 603. Then, Nili’s son, Basa tegin, ruled from 603 to 604.
Before the Arab invasion, Bukhara was a center for followers of two religions that were not allowed in the Sasanian Empire: Manicheanism and Nestorian Christianity. Coins with Christian symbols, such as crosses, have been found in and around Bukhara from the late seventh or early eighth centuries. Scholars believe that the large number of these coins suggests Christianity may have been the religion of the ruling class. More coins with crosses have been found near Bukhara than anywhere else in Central Asia.
When Arab armies arrived in 650, they found a region with many different ethnic groups, religions, and no single ruler. The Bukhar Khudahs, or "Lords of Bukhara," controlled the wealthy city of Paykand. However, after 100 years, many people in the region still followed their old religions instead of converting to Islam. Without a strong central leader, the Arabs could win battles but could not hold land in Central Asia. Bukhara and other cities in the Sogdian federation even used the conflict between the Arab Caliphate and the Tang dynasty to their advantage. The Arabs truly conquered Bukhara only after the Battle of Talas in 751. At this time, Islam became the main religion and remains the dominant religion today.
Early Islamic era
Muhammad ibn Jafar Narshakhi, in his History of Bukhara (written in Arabic between 943 and 944, translated into English in 1954 by Richard N. Frye), wrote:
For 100 years after the Battle of Talas, Islam gradually spread in Bukhara. In 892, Bukhara became the capital of the Samanid Empire. This brought a return of Iranian language and culture after a long time of Arab rule. During Samanid control, Bukhara became as important as Baghdad. Scholars say the Samanids promoted Persian more than the Buyids and Saffarids, while still supporting Arabic to a large extent. In one well-known official statement, Samanid leaders said, "In this region, the language is Persian, and the kings of this area are Persian kings."
During the Samanid Empire’s best period, Bukhara became a major center of learning in the Islamic world. Many famous scholars lived and worked there. Bukhara was also a key place for the slave trade during the Samanid Empire, and this trade was the main source of money for the state.
In 999, the Samanids were replaced by the Karakhanid Turkic dynasty.
Karakhanid and Khorezmshakh periods
In 1005, Bukhara became part of the Turkic state called the Karakhanids. The Karakhanid ruler, Arslan Khan, had one of the most beautiful minarets in the Islamic world, the Minora-i Kalon, built.
Between the 11th and early 12th centuries, Karakhanid rulers rebuilt several buildings in Bukhara. Shams al-Mulk Nasr b. Ibrahim (1068–1080) rebuilt a cathedral mosque with a minaret located between the fortress and the shakhristan. He also created a large garden called Shamsabad, with impressive buildings near Bukhara, behind the southern gate of Ibrahim.
During the Karakhanid period, the famous poet and scientist Omar Khayyam worked in Bukhara for a time at the request of the ruler Shams al-Mulk. Later, Karakhanid ruler Kadyr Khan Dzhabrail b. Togryl-tegin Umar (died in 1102) rebuilt the Kulartakin madrasah near the Attaran bazaars and was buried there.
The Chinese Song Dynasty hired Muslim soldiers from Bukhara to fight against the Khitan nomads. In 1070, the Song emperor Shenzong encouraged and invited 5,300 Muslim men from Bukhara to move to China to help battle the Liao empire in the northeast and to repopulate areas damaged by war. These men were hired as mercenaries by the emperor. Later, they settled between the Song capital of Kaifeng and Yenching (modern-day Beijing). In 1080, 10,000 more Muslims were invited to settle in northern and northeastern China. They were led by the Amir of Bukhara, Sayyid "So-fei-er," who is known as the "Father" of Chinese Islam. The Tang and Song Chinese called Islam "Dashi fa" ("law of the Arabs"). Sayyid "So-fei-er" gave Islam a new name, "Huihui Jiao" ("the Religion of the Huihui").
At the start of the 13th century, Bukhara was invaded by Muhammad II of Khwarezm (1200–1220).
Mongol era
Bukhara was part of the kingdom of the Khwarazm Shahs, who made the Mongols angry by killing their ambassador. In 1220, Genghis Khan destroyed the city completely.
Genghis Khan surrounded Bukhara for 15 days in 1220. According to Juvaini, after capturing the city, Genghis Khan only looted and killed once, unlike his actions in Khorasan, even though most of the city burned. He chose a middle way between being kind and punishing because the people of Bukhara quickly surrendered, but the soldiers in the fortress resisted. He spared most adults but killed 30,000 Qangli Turks who were very tall and loyal to Sultan Muhammad. He then forced all other healthy men to join the army.
At the same time, the Mongols brought Central Asian Muslims to work as officials in China. They also sent Han and Khitan people from China to manage the Muslim population in Bukhara. The Mongols used people from other lands to limit the power of local groups. Han people were moved to places like Besh Baliq, Almaliq, and Samarqand, where they worked as craftsmen and farmers. A Chinese religious leader named Qiu Chuji traveled through Uzbekistan to meet Genghis Khan in Afghanistan.
After Genghis Khan died, his son Chagatai and his descendants ruled Bukhara until Timur took control. The city slowly recovered and was first part of the Chaghatay Khanate and later the Timurid Empire. Ibn Hawqal described the main canals that carried water from the left side of the Sughd River to Bukhara and the fields around the city.
When the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta visited the region around 1333, the town had not fully recovered from the Mongol attack. He reported that "its mosques, schools, and markets are in ruins" and noted that "there is not one person in it today who possesses any religious learning or who shows any concern for acquiring it."
Khanate of Bukhara
This was a type of government during the 16th–18th centuries. The name came from when the capital of the Shaybanid state (1506–1598) was moved to Bukhara. It became strongest and most powerful under its final Shaybanid ruler, Abdullah Khan II (ruled 1577–1598). In 1740, Nadir Shah conquered the region. After Nadir Shah died in 1747, the khanate was ruled by descendants of the Uzbek emir Khudayar Bi, who held power through a position called ataliq. In 1785, Khudayar Bi’s descendant, Shah Murad, officially started the family’s rule (called the Manghit dynasty), and the khanate became the Emirate of Bukhara.
Emirate of Bukhara (1785–1920)
Bukhara was involved in The Great Game, a competition between the Russian and British Empires. Charles Stoddart and Arthur Conolly were captured by the Emir of Bukhara and held in a dirt pit for many months before being executed outside the Citadel. Joseph Wolff, called the Eccentric Missionary, avoided a similar fate when he searched for them in 1845. Later, Bukhara became part of the Russian Empire.
In the 19th century, Bukhara remained important for culture and religion in the region. A French scholar named Jean Jacques Pierre Desmaisons visited the city in disguise as a Muslim merchant in 1834. For many years, Bukhara and Khiva were major centers of the slave trade. Together, they were known as the "slave capitals of the world."
Muhammad Alim Khan was the last Emir of Bukhara, ruling from 1880 to 1944. The Trans-Caspian railway was built through Bukhara in the late 1800s. The nearest train station is at Kagan, about 12 miles away, but the Emir had a private railway line built directly to Bukhara.
Russian Revolution and later
The Bukharan People's Soviet Republic existed from 1920 to 1924, after which the city became part of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1938, Fitzroy Maclean, a young British diplomat working in Moscow, secretly visited Bokhara. During his trip, he explored the city and stayed in parks. In his book Eastern Approaches, he described Bokhara as an "enchanted city" with buildings that compared to the best architecture of the Italian Renaissance. In the second half of the 20th century, the war in Afghanistan and the civil war in Tajikistan caused Persian-speaking refugees to move to Bukhara and Samarkand. After joining the local Tajik population, these cities now face a movement to become part of Tajikistan, even though they do not share a border with that country.