Zacatecas (said in Spanish as [sakaˈtekas]) is the main city in the area of Mexico with the same name and serves as the capital of the state of Zacatecas. Found in north-central Mexico, the city began as a Spanish mining camp in the middle of the 16th century. Native American groups had already discovered the area's valuable silver and other mineral deposits. Because the mines brought wealth, Zacatecas became one of the most important mining cities in New Spain. The region experienced battles during the difficult 19th century, but the next major event was the Battle of Zacatecas during the Mexican Revolution, when Francisco Villa captured the town. This event is still celebrated each year on its anniversary. Today, the colonial section of the city is a World Heritage Site because of the Baroque-style buildings and other structures built during its mining era. Mining remains an important industry in the area. The name Zacatecas comes from the Zacateco people and has its roots in the Nahuatl language. The name means "people of the grasslands."

History

The first people to live in the area arrived about 10,000 years ago. At that time, the climate was warmer and wetter, with different plants and animals. Later, the area was mainly inhabited by Chichimeca groups, such as the Caxcans, Guachichils, Guamares, Huichols, Zacatecos, and others. The Zacatecos were the largest group in the area that is now the city. These people mined silver and other metals in the hills long before Europeans arrived, making the area important in the time before the arrival of Columbus.

The Spanish arrived in the Zacatecas area through Guadalajara. In 1540, Nuño de Guzmán traveled from Mexico City and conquered what are now the states of Michoacán and Jalisco. One of Guzmán’s officers, Cristóbal de Oñate, conquered the area around Guadalajara. Another officer, Pedro Almindes Chirinos Peralmindes, explored lands to the north and took Zacatecas with little difficulty, though he did not know about the riches below the ground. At first, the area was a frontier. Other expeditions followed, including one by Juan de Tolosa in 1546. Tolosa brought rock samples from Cerro de la Bufa, which were found to contain high amounts of silver and lead. A mining camp was soon built at the foot of Cerro de la Bufa. The Zacatecos resisted the Spanish at first, but the Spanish were determined to mine the area and defeated the natives in the 1540s. Surveys of nearby hills were done by Tolosa, Diego de Ibarra, Baltasar Temiño de Bañuelos, Andrés de Villanueva, and others.

A military mining camp was officially established in 1548 and named Minas de Nuestra Señora de Remedios. The first major silver vein was found in 1548 in a mine called San Bernabé. Similar finds followed in mines named Albarrada de San Benito, Vetagrande, Pánuco, and others. This brought many people to Zacatecas, including craftsmen, merchants, priests, and adventurers. In 1550, Leonor Cortés Moctezuma, the illegitimate daughter of conquistador Hernán Cortés and Isabel Moctezuma, the daughter of the Aztec emperor, arrived in Zacatecas. Doña Leonor married Juan de Tolosa. The settlement quickly grew into one of the most important cities in New Spain and the most populous after Mexico City. The camp became a parish in 1550, then a city in 1585, named "Muy Noble y Leal Ciudad de Nuestra Señora de Zacatecas" (Very Noble and Loyal City of Our Lady of Zacatecas). It received its coat of arms from Philip II of Spain at the same time. The success of the mines led to the arrival of indigenous people and the importation of enslaved Africans to work in the mines. The mining camp expanded southward along the Arroyo de la Plata, which is now under Hidalgo Avenue, the city’s main road. Tall buildings were built there because flat land was limited. The first house was supposedly built in 1547, just before the fortress and metal foundry. Hospitals and hospices were built in the 1550s.

Zacatecas was one of the wealthiest states in Mexico. One of the most important mines from the colonial period was the El Edén mine, which began operations in 1586 on Cerro de la Bufa. It mainly produced gold and silver, with most production happening in the 17th and 18th centuries. Today, the entrance to this mine is within the city limits. It was closed to mining in 1960 and reopened as a tourist attraction in 1975. By the end of the 16th century, the city was the second most important in New Spain, after Mexico City. The income from its mines helped the Spanish Crown become one of the most powerful in Europe. The city’s importance was not only due to mining. Many religious groups in New Spain established monasteries, making Zacatecas an important center for spreading Christianity. The Franciscans arrived in 1558, the Augustinians in 1576, and the Dominicans in 1604. Many missionary expeditions to what are now California and Texas began from this city.

During the colonial period, the wealth from mining funded the construction of important religious and secular buildings. The peak of this construction happened in the 18th century. One example is the Colegio de San Luis Gonzaga, which was established in 1796.

Ignacio López Rayón led a group of Mexican rebels who captured the city of Zacatecas on April 15, 1811, early in the fight for Mexican independence from Spain. Víctor Rosales and José María Cos were leaders of Hidalgo’s rebellion. Shortly after independence, the Mexican government made Zacatecas the capital of the newly formed state of Zacatecas.

In the mid-1820s, institutions such as the first opera house, first teachers’ college, the state treasury, the state supreme court, and others were founded in the city when the first state constitution was signed. The first newspaper in the state started in 1825. The municipality was established in 1825.

From the end of the War of Independence until nearly the end of the 19th century, liberals (federalists) and conservatives (who supported centralized rule from Mexico City) fought for control of Zacatecas. In 1835, liberal Antonio López de Santa Anna defeated the troops of Francisco Garcia Salinas. During the Reform War, the city was taken by conservative general Miguel Miramón.

The first railroad connecting Zacatecas with Guadalupe was completed in 1880. Connections with Mexico City and El Paso by rail were established in 1884.

During the Mexican Revolution, Zacatecas was the site of the Battle of Zacatecas in 1914, where rebel forces led by Francisco Villa fought government forces led by Victoriano Huerta. Zacatecas was the last stronghold of Huerta’s forces, which the División del Norte reached on June 19, 1914, from Torreón. Taking the city would allow Villa to advance toward Mexico City. Villa’s forces were led by General Felipe Ángeles, and Huerta’s forces were led by General Luis Medina Barrón. From the 19th to the 23rd, General Medina used a light beacon from Veracruz to light the hills at night to find rebel positions. The battle began at 10:00 a.m. on the 23rd with rebel cannon fire. Over 22,000 rebel troops approached the city from four directions: La Bufa, La Sierpe, Loreto, and La Tierra Negra. The battle lasted until about 5:00 p.m., when Huerta’s troops began to leave their positions, and the División del Norte captured the strategic hills of La Bufa and El Grillo, entering the city. The rebels destroyed some buildings. Battle casualties were about 5,000 for Huerta’s troops and 3,000 for the rebels. After the Mexican Revolution, the city of Zacatecas decided to revive the original seal granted by Philip II of Spain and use it for both the city and the state

The city

The city has a nickname: "with a face of pink stone and a heart of silver." This name comes from the pink stone used in many buildings and the silver that helped the city grow. Like other mining cities in Mexico, such as Guanajuato and Taxco, the city was built near mines on rough land. It is located at the foot of Cerro de la Bufa, which was one of the world’s largest silver mines. Instead of having an orderly street plan, the Spanish settlement followed old Indian neighborhoods, creating narrow streets and alleys in a large ravine called a "cañada." Development also spread up the hills without changing the land. The main road runs north to south along the Arroyo de la Plata, with the rest of the city filled with winding alleys, small streets, and tiny plazas. Many alleys have names tied to local stories, such as "Callejón del Indio Triste" (Alley of the Sad Indian) and "Callejón del Mono Prieto" (Alley of the Dark Monkey). The only large open space is the main plaza, where it is hard to see the whole Baroque front of the main cathedral.

Around the city are the Brittany hills, which contain silver and other minerals, such as Cerro de la Virgen, Cerro de Clérigos, Cerro del Grillo, Cerro del Padre, and Cerro de la Bufa. These hills have little vegetation because of the dry climate. The city is known for clean air and streets, with trash cans placed every ten meters in the city center.

This city, along with Guanajuato and Taxco, is part of a route called the "Ruta de la Plata" or Silver Route. These cities are famous not only for silver but also for preserving their colonial buildings and narrow streets. Zacatecas has kept many structures from the colonial period, such as churches, government buildings, and mansions made of pink stone by wealthy miners. Most of these buildings were built in the 18th century, when silver mining was most active. These buildings have made the city’s historic center a World Heritage Site.

Cerro de la Bufa, with its El Edén mine, is a key symbol of the city. It was the site of the Battle of Zacatecas (called the Toma de Zacatecas in Spanish) in 1914, where Francisco Villa won. At the top of the mountain is a museum and statues honoring Pánfilo Natera, Francisco Villa, and Felipe Ángeles, linked to this event. The site also includes an observatory, the Mausoleo de los Hombres Ilustres, and the Chapel of Virgen del Patrocinio.

The El Edén mine started operating in 1586 and mainly produced gold and silver. A local legend says the devil is near because of the wind’s sound around the rocks. Mining began in the 16th century but peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries. Mining stopped in 1960 because the mine’s entrance is in the city center, making it unsafe. In 1975, the mine became a tourist attraction. Today, visitors can ride a small train into the mountain for about half a kilometer and then walk with a guide through narrow tunnels. One attraction is an altar to the Santo Niño de Atocha. At night, the former rock crushing room is used as a nightclub.

The Toma de Zacatecas Museum is on Cerro de la Bufa and was built in 1984. It has items from the Battle of Zacatecas and the Cristero War, including clothing, weapons, maps, and photos from that time. The museum is near the Plaza de la Revolución, which has statues of Francisco Villa and two other generals who captured the city. The museum was originally the Casa de la Caridad y Hospital de Pobres. Next to it is the Chapel of Nuestra Señora del Patrocinio, a 16th-century hermitage with a Baroque-style front. The Observatorio Meteorológico is used to study weather.

Between Cerro de la Bufa and Cerro del Grillo is a cable car called "El Teleférico," built in 1979 by the Swiss. It travels about 650 meters and offers views of the city. The ride takes about eight minutes but stops during high winds.

South of the main plaza is the cathedral, built over ruins of pre-Hispanic temples. The current structure dates to 1752 and is made of pink stone. The best time to see the front is in the late afternoon when sunlight hits it. The cathedral is an example of Mexican Churrigueresque architecture. The first church on this site was built between 1567 and 1585 but fell into ruins by the 17th century. A second church, called the Chapel of Santo Cristo, was built between 1612 and 1625. Remains of this church can be seen in the south tower and main front. The current cathedral began in 1729, with the front completed in 1745 but not opened until 1752.

The cathedral is attributed to Domingo Ximénez Hernández and shows the city’s wealth in the 18th century. Later additions were made, including a dome rebuilt in 1848 and the south tower completed in 1904 by Dámaso Muñetón. The 19th-century dome resembles the dome of the Church of Loreto in Mexico City. The church became a cathedral in 1862 and was declared a national monument in 1935. In 1965, many of its precious metal items were stolen and never recovered.

The cathedral is 85 meters tall and made entirely of pink sandstone. It has three naves and three main entrances. The main front has three levels supported by Solomonic columns with niches. At the top is a cross. The first level has three columns with vines and angels, and niches with statues of the Four Evangelists. The second level has columns with shells, acanthus, and vines, with a choir window. The third level has an image of Christ with two apostles, flanked by columns with leaves, caryatids, and cherubs. The plaza side entrance has two levels with stone columns and a scene of the crucified Christ with the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist. The market side entrance is Baroque and honors the city’s patron, Virgen del Patrocinio. The interior has a Latin cross

Museums

Zacatecas has many museums compared to its population size. The Pedro Coronel Museum is in the old monastery of the Santo Domingo church, which also once housed the former Jesuit college of San Luis Gonzaga. San Luis was known for his teaching in Latin America. One student from this college was Father Antonio Núñez de Miranda, who was the spiritual teacher of Juana Inés de la Cruz, a Mexican poet. After the Jesuits were expelled, the college was briefly used by the Dominicans. Later, it became a barracks, a prison, and a warehouse. In 1981, the building was restored. The museum displays works by Zacatecas painter Pedro Coronel and other artists he collected. The archive includes pieces by Pablo Picasso, Dalí, Miró, Braque, Chagall, Basarelli, Eduardo Degas, and Hogart. Halls also show art from Africa, India, Egypt, China, and Greece. The museum has an important collection of medals and 25,000 books from old convents, including 15,000 from Our Lady of Guadalupe. Most of these books are in the Elías Armador Historical Library, which holds over 20,000 volumes.

The Rafael Coronel Museum, named after Pedro Coronel’s brother, is in eight halls of the monastery complex that was part of the Church of San Francisco. This museum displays historic relics, including 5,000 masks made of wood, leather, and clay from many regions of Mexico. Many masks show historical or supernatural figures. It also includes drawings by Diego Rivera. Halls dedicated to the colonial period have terracotta figures from the 17th and 18th centuries. The Rosete Aranda Hall has puppets from Burma, Indonesia, and China. There is also a collection of masks and puppets from a famous 20th-century Mexican theater company. The museum began when Rafael donated 10,764 items from his personal collection to Zacatecas.

The Manuel Felguérez Museum has a large collection of abstract art by the artist and others from three generations. One exhibition is the "Murals of Osaka," created in 1969 for Mexico’s pavilion at the 1970 World’s Fair in Osaka. These murals were stored for decades before becoming a permanent display. Artists included in the collection are Lilia Carrillo, Francisco Corzas, Roger Van Gunten, and Francisco Icasa. The museum has space for etching workshops, an auditorium, and exhibition halls. Its building dates to the 18th century and was once the Seminario Conciliar, later a barracks and penitentiary. The museum opened in 1998.

The Zacatecano Museum is on Doctor Hierro Street and displays Huichol art, folk retablos (thank-you paintings for miracles), and wrought ironwork. This building was once the Casa de Moneda (coin mint) from 1802 to 1905. Other museums in Zacatecas include the Museo de Pintura Colonial and Casa Museo Ramón López Velarde. Additional museums are the Episcopal Gallery, the Museo de la Ciencia, and the Francisco Goitia Museum. The Episcopal Gallery is near the cathedral and shows religious art from the 19th and 20th centuries, including religious items, paintings, sculptures, and a multilingual Bible from 1772. The Museo de la Ciencia is in the old central building of the Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas and displays collections about physics, mathematics, and natural sciences. The Francisco Goitia Museum shows works by Zacatecas artist Francisco Goitia and other artists, including Julio Ruelas, Pedro and Rafael Coronel, Manuel Felguérez, and Jose Kuri Brena.

Education

The city has many universities and colleges, including the state-supported Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas.

The Universidad Tecnológica del Estado de Zacatecas (UTEZ) is part of a group of technology schools in Mexico. It was created in 1998 by the Zacatecas state government to teach technology and business subjects.

Other technical schools include the Instituto Tecnológico de Zacatecas, the Instituto Politécnico de Zacatecas, and a branch of the ITESM college system.

Festivals and celebrations

The city holds many religious and cultural festivals throughout the year. The Festival Cultural de Zacatecas takes place each year during Holy Week. It brings together artists from different music styles, like classical and rock, and offers more than 130 activities for visitors. Artists who have performed include La Barranca, Real de Catorce, blues singer Betsy Pecannins, and singer Vicky Carr. The festival also includes theater shows and events for children. About 90% of the activities are free. The event is organized by the state of Zacatecas with help from the Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, ISSSTE, IMSS, CONACULTA, and other government groups.

The Feria Nacional de Zacatecas happens in September at the foot of the Cerro de la Bufa. It includes concerts, bullfighting, events for children, craft shows, and displays of livestock, cars, and culture. The festival began in 1940 and has had more than two million visitors each year since 2002. The main concert hall can hold 5,000 people and has hosted performers like Vicente Fernández, Alejandra Guzmán, Rocío Dúrcal, Rio Roma, and Ha*Ash. The event also includes craft sales, livestock shows, food displays, charreadas, bullfighting, folkloric dances, and fireworks.

The Festival Zacatecas del Folclor International happens during the first week of August.

Religious events include the feast of the Virgin of Zacatecas and the feast of the Virgin del Patrocinio. These events include parades with decorated floats, musical concerts, bullfighting, processions, and other religious activities. The Virgin of Zacatecas is kept in a chapel built in 1728 and is visited by people from the city and other areas. The Virgin del Patrocinio is celebrated on September 14 and is one of the most important religious images in the region. This event lasts ten days and includes traditional dances, processions, and other activities. It happens at the same time as the Feria Nacional de Zacatecas and Mexico's Independence Day. On Good Friday, a large procession called the "Procession of Silence" takes place.

The last three days of August are dedicated to an event called Morismas de Bracho. This event includes about 5,000 people in costumes who reenact the story of the decapitation of John the Baptist and the battle between Christians and the Moors. Key characters include Charlemagne, Mohamed, and John the Baptist. The event takes place at El Bracho Park, behind the Cerro de la Bufa, and ends with the depiction of Mohamed's decapitation.

On June 23, the city commemorates the Battle of Zacatecas with cultural events and fireworks at the Cerro de la Bufa and the Plaza de Armas.

"Callejoneadas" or alleyway parties are traditional celebrations where people dance, sing, and drink mezcal or a beer-based drink called "heribertas" for free. These parties are said to have started with a college student named Heriberto. They are usually held at the end of the school year but can happen at any time. These parties often begin near the Palacio de Gobierno, where a "tambora" band or other group, a group of people, and a decorated donkey carrying jugs of "heribertas" gather. The party then moves through the city's narrow streets and alleys, with people drinking "heribertas" from small jars called jarritos. Most participants are students, but anyone can join.

Zacatecas is the home of a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Category II Regional Office. This office helps with training, research, and protecting artistic, historical, natural, and archaeological heritage in Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. It is the fourth such office established after those in China, Brazil, and Bahrain. The office is responsible for managing 14% of the world's heritage sites.

The city's chamber music festival has been held every year since 1993. It is organized by the Instituto Zacatecano de Cultura with support from the Escuela de Música of the Universidad de Zacatecas and other local and national groups.

Transportation

Zacatecas is connected by highway to Aguascalientes through Federal Highway 45, to San Luis Potosí through Federal Highway 49, to Guadalajara and Torreón through Federal Highway 23, and to Guadalajara and Saltillo through Federal Highway 54. A rail line called the "Ferrocarril Central" continues to link the city to other places, including Ciudad Juárez and Mexico City. The city has an airport named General Leobardo C. Ruiz International Airport, which provides flights to Tijuana, Morelia, León, and Mexico City. Intercity buses travel between Zacatecas and nearby cities like Fresnillo, as well as to larger cities such as Guadalajara, Ciudad Juárez, and Mexico City. Transportation is also available to locations like Plateros and the Sanctuary of the Niño de Atocha. Public transportation is also available within the city.

The municipality

The city of Zacatecas is the main city and government center for 180 other local areas, covering a total area of 444 km² (171 square miles). Ninety-three percent of the 132,035 people living in the area live in the city itself. There are no indigenous communities in the region, and most people are of mixed indigenous and European heritage, known as "mestizo." Fewer than 500 people speak indigenous languages like Huichol or Zacateco, and most of these individuals also speak Spanish. The area is bordered by the municipalities of Calera, Morelos, Vetagrande, Guadalupe, Genaro Codina, and Jerez.

Zacatecas is located between the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range and a smaller mountain area called Sierras y Valles Zacatecanos. The land is very rough, with narrow valleys, deep ravines, and high mountains. Some of the highest points include Cerro El Grillo at 2,690 meters (8,830 feet), Cerro Los Alamitos at 2,680 meters (8,790 feet), and Cerro Grande at 2,370 meters (7,780 feet). The area is divided between the Lerma River and El Salado River basins, with many small streams and dry riverbeds crossing the region.

According to the 2020 Mexican Census, the population of Zacatecas municipality was 149,607 people, including 77,635 females and 71,972 males.

Zacatecas City has a cold semi-arid climate, which means it is cold and dry most of the year, with an average temperature of 15.7°C (60°F). Freezing temperatures often occur in January and February. During the winter of 2017–2018, temperatures in Zacatecas dropped to -12°C, with a wind chill of -16°C. The coldest temperature was recorded in Fresnillo, a nearby city, where it reached -15°C with a wind chill of -20°C. Most rainfall happens between June and September, and there is a clear winter season. Plants in the area include those that grow in dry conditions, such as cacti, mesquite trees, maguey, and grasses. Higher elevations have pine trees and holm oaks. Wildlife includes coyotes, grey foxes, bobcats, opossums, rabbits, raccoons, small mammals, and many birds and reptiles.

The main industries in Zacatecas are mining, which employs about 21% of the population, livestock farming, which uses 76% of the land, and commerce, which employs over 70% of the population. Most mining takes place in the Panuco, Vetagrande, and Morelos mountains, with active mines such as El Compas, La Gallega, San Panuncio, and San Rafael. Annual production includes 50,043 pesos worth of gold, 11,320 pesos worth of silver, and 38,122 pesos worth of lead. Other non-metallic minerals include kaolin, building stone, and petroleum aggregates. Agriculture and livestock are mostly done communally on ten established ejidos, which are shared land areas. Only 15% of the land is farmed, and farming depends on the rainy season to grow basic crops like beans, chili peppers, and corn. Livestock includes cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and horses. There is some industry related to food processing, textiles, wood products, paper, mining equipment, and crafts like sarapes, stonework, leather, and precious metals. Commerce includes both local needs and tourism. The city is a World Heritage site, and there are camping areas in the Sierra de Organos, Canon de Juchipila, Cerro del Mixton, and Sierra de Cardos. La Quemada, also known as Alta Vista-Chalchihuites, is the most famous archaeological site in Zacatecas. The site shows influences from cultures like Teotihuacan, the Purépechas, and the Toltecs. It is built on a large hill and has multiple levels. When it rains, water flows over the upper levels like a waterfall.

Twin towns – sister cities

Zacatecas has the following sister cities:

• Azusa, California, United States
• El Paso, Texas, United States
• Málaga, Andalusia, Spain
• Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States
• Wichita, Kansas, United States
• Norwalk, California, United States
• Hanover Township, Illinois, United States
• Memphis, Tennessee, United States
• Woodstock, Illinois, United States

Notable people

• Juan de Tolosa (1515–1594) – Conquistador. Helped found Zacatecas. Married Leonor Cortés Moctezuma.
• Juan de Oñate (1550–1626) – Mexican conquistador. Born in Zacatecas. Married Isabel de Tolosa Cortés de Moctezuma. Led expeditions to New Mexico, Colorado, and the Acoma massacre.
• Fray Antonio Margil de Jesús (1657–1726) – Friar. Born in Spain. Founded several missions in Guatemala, Querétaro, Zacatecas, and Texas.
• Víctor Rosales (1776–1817) – Hero of the Mexican war of independence.
• Francisco García Salinas (1786–1841) – Politician. Served as Governor of Zacatecas. Acted as President of Mexico temporarily.
• Pedro Vélez (1787–1848) – President of Mexico from December 23 to December 31, 1829.
• Jesús González Ortega (1822–1881) – Military and politician. Served as Governor and fought against the French Intervention.
• Genaro Codina (1852–1901) – Musician. Wrote the famous March of Zacatecas.
• Refugio Reyes Rivas (1862–1943) – Architect. Most productive Mexican architect in the Bajío region during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Julio Ruelas (1870–1907) – Artist from the Symbolism school.
• Manuel M. Ponce (1882–1948) – Musician. Composed music during the late Romantic and Impressionist periods.
• Ramón López Velarde (1888–1921) – Poet. Modernist writer. Considered Mexico’s national poet.
• Enrique Estrada Reynoso (1890–1942) – Military and politician. Participated in the Mexican Revolution.
• Raul Ruiz (born 1972) – U.S. representative for California’s 25th congressional district.
• Manuel Felguérez (1928–2020) – Artist. Plastic artist from the abstract art school.