Victoria Falls, also known as Mosi-oa-Tunya in the Lozi language ("Thundering Smoke/Smoke that Rises") and Shungu Namutitima in the Tonga language ("Boiling Water"), is a waterfall on the Zambezi River. It lies on the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is one of the world's largest waterfalls, with a width of 1,708 meters (5,604 feet). The area around the falls has many different types of plants and animals.

Studies and stories from people show that Africans have known about the falls for a long time. Some European geographers knew about the falls before the 19th century, but a Scottish missionary named David Livingstone discovered the falls in 1855. He named them Victoria Falls after Queen Victoria. Since the middle of the 20th century, the area has become a popular place for tourists. Both Zambia and Zimbabwe have national parks and places to visit near the falls. Research in the late 2010s found that changes in rainfall because of climate change may affect how the falls look and behave.

Name origins

David Livingstone was the first European known to have seen the falls on November 16, 1855, from an island now called Livingstone Island. This island is one of two pieces of land in the middle of the river, just before the falls near the Zambian side. Livingstone named the falls in honor of Queen Victoria. However, the local name, Mosi-oa-Tunya, which means "The Smoke That Thunders," is still widely used. The World Heritage List officially recognizes both names. Livingstone also mentioned an older name, Seongo or Chongwe, meaning "The Place of the Rainbow," because the mist from the water creates rainbows. The nearby national park in Zambia is named Mosi-oa-Tunya, while the national park and town on the Zimbabwean side are both called Victoria Falls.

Size

Victoria Falls is considered the largest waterfall in the world because of its width, which is 1,708 metres (5,604 feet), and its height, which is 108 metres (354 feet). This combination creates the largest single sheet of falling water on Earth.

Upstream from the falls, the Zambezi River flows over a flat layer of basalt rock in a shallow valley. The valley is surrounded by low, distant hills made of sandstone. Along the river’s path, there are many islands covered with trees. These islands become more common as the river gets closer to the falls. A flat plateau spreads out in all directions around the area.

The falls are formed where the entire width of the river drops suddenly into a deep canyon that is 1,708 metres (5,604 feet) wide. This canyon was created along a crack in the basalt plateau. The depth of the canyon, called the First Gorge, ranges from 80 metres (260 feet) at the western end to 108 metres (354 feet) in the center. The only way water can leave the First Gorge is through a narrow opening that is 110 metres (360 feet) wide, located about two-thirds of the way from the western end of the falls. All the water from the river flows into the Victoria Falls gorges through this narrow gap.

Two islands are located on the top edge of the falls: Boaruka Island (also called Cataract Island) near the western side, and Livingstone Island near the middle. When the river is not at its highest level, smaller islands divide the waterfall into separate streams. The main streams, from west to east, are named: the Devil’s Cataract (sometimes called Leaping Water), the Main Falls, the Rainbow Falls (the highest), and the Eastern Cataract.

The Zambezi River upstream from the falls has a rainy season from late November to early April, and a dry season the rest of the year. The river’s highest water levels occur from February to May, with the peak in April. The spray from the falls can rise more than 400 metres (1,300 feet) high, sometimes reaching twice that height. This spray can be seen from up to 50 kilometres (30 miles) away. During a full moon, a "moonbow" can also be seen. However, during the flood season, the bottom and sides of the waterfall are not visible.

During the dry season, the islands on the top of the falls grow larger and more numerous. From September to January, up to half of the rocky face of the falls may become dry, allowing people to see the bottom of the First Gorge along most of its length. At this time, it is possible (though not always safe) to walk across parts of the river at the top of the falls. It is also possible to walk to the bottom of the First Gorge on the Zimbabwean side.

The lowest water levels occur in November, when the flow is about one-tenth of the level seen in April. This large difference between high and low water levels causes the average yearly flow of the Victoria Falls to be lower than expected based on the highest flow. In 2019, unusually low rainfall caused the lowest water levels in over 100 years. Scientists suggest that changes in global climate patterns may have contributed to this event.

Gorges

The entire volume of the Zambezi River flows through the First Gorge’s 110-meter (360-foot) wide exit for about 150 meters (490 feet). After this, the river enters a series of gorges that are named in the order the river reaches them. When the river enters the Second Gorge, it turns sharply to the right and has created a deep pool called the Boiling Pot. This pool is reached by a steep path from the Zambian side and is about 150 meters (490 feet) wide. At low water levels, the pool’s surface is smooth, but at high water levels, it has large, slow-moving swirls and strong turbulence.

The main gorges are:

• First Gorge: The river falls into this gorge at Victoria Falls.
• Second Gorge: Located 250 meters (820 feet) south of the falls, it is 2.15 kilometers (1.34 miles) long and has the Victoria Falls Bridge spanning it.
• Third Gorge: Found 600 meters (2,000 feet) south, it is 1.95 kilometers (1.21 miles) long and contains the Victoria Falls Power Station.
• Fourth Gorge: Located 1.15 kilometers (0.71 miles) south, it is 2.25 kilometers (1.40 miles) long.
• Fifth Gorge: Found 2.25 kilometers (1.40 miles) south, it is 3.2 kilometers (2.0 miles) long.
• Songwe Gorge: Located 5.3 kilometers (3.3 miles) south, it is 3.3 kilometers (2.1 miles) long. Named after the Songwe River from the northeast, it is the deepest at 140 meters (460 feet). The water level in this gorge changes by up to 20 meters (66 feet) between wet and dry seasons.

Formation

The Upper Zambezi River once flowed south through present-day Botswana to meet the Limpopo River. About 2 million years ago, rising land between Zimbabwe and the Kalahari Desert blocked this path, creating a large ancient lake called Lake Makgadikgadi between the Kalahari and the Batoka Basaltic Plateau of Zimbabwe and Zambia. This lake had no natural outlet and was endorheic, meaning water did not flow out. Around 20,000 years ago, during wetter conditions, the lake overflowed and began draining eastward, carving the Batoka Gorge through the basalt.

The geological history of Victoria Falls is visible in the Batoka Gorge’s structure, which includes six separate gorges and eight past positions of the falls. The gorges run east-west and are shaped by natural cracks in the rock, such as faults with 50 meters (160 feet) of vertical movement, as seen in the second and fifth gorges. Erosion along these weak spots created new fall lines while older ones were abandoned. North-south cracks control the river’s southern flow, including the "Boiling Pot," which connects the First Gorge to the Second Gorge.

The falls may now be starting to erode the next major gorge near the "Devil's Cataract," where the river bank dips toward Cataract Island. This area has the lowest point of the current falls and carries the most water during floods.

The rock layers above the basalt along the Zambezi River are called the Victoria Falls Formation. These layers include gravel, Pipe sandstone, Kalahari sand, wind-blown sand, and alluvium. A 15–45 meter high slope, called a scarp, borders the river about 5–6 kilometers from the main channel. Between the scarp and the river, a series of flat, stepped landforms called river terraces are visible.

History

The basalt plateau of Victoria Falls, where the Zambezi River flows, was formed during the Jurassic period, about 200 million years ago.

Early Stone Age tools, such as Acheulean and Oldowan artefacts, were found at archaeological sites near the falls. Other tools from the Middle Stone Age, like Sangoan and Lupemban artefacts, were also discovered there. Early Iron Age pottery was found at a site near Masuma Dam in the early 1960s. Evidence of iron smelting was also found in a settlement from the late first millennium AD.

The southern Tonga people, called the Batoka/Tokalea, named the falls "Shungu na mutitima." The Matabele, who arrived later, called them "aManz' aThunqayo." The Batswana and Makololo, whose language is used by the Lozi people, named them "Mosi-o-Tunya." All these names mean something similar: "the smoke that thunders."

A map drawn by Nicolas de Fer in 1715 shows the falls clearly marked in the correct location. It also includes dotted lines showing trade routes that David Livingstone followed 140 years later. A map from around 1750, made by Jacques Nicolas Bellin for Abbé Antoine François Prevost d'Exiles, labels the falls as "cataractes" and notes a settlement north of the Zambezi that was friendly with the Portuguese at that time.

In November 1855, David Livingstone was the first European to see the falls. He traveled from the upper Zambezi to the river's mouth between 1852 and 1856. Local tribes already knew about the falls, and some groups, like the Voortrekker hunters or Arab traders, may have known of them under a name meaning "the end of the world." Europeans were skeptical of these reports, possibly because the flat plateau seemed unlikely to have such a large waterfall.

Livingstone had heard about the falls before reaching them and was paddled to Livingstone Island in Zambia. In 1860, he returned to study the falls in detail with John Kirk. Other early European visitors included Portuguese explorer Serpa Pinto, Czech explorer Emil Holub, who made the first detailed plan of the falls in 1875 (published in 1880), and British artist Thomas Baines, who painted some of the earliest images of the falls. Until a railway was built in 1905, few Europeans visited the area. Some writers believe Portuguese priest Gonçalo da Silveira may have seen the falls as early as the 16th century.

European settlement in the Victoria Falls area began around 1900, driven by Cecil Rhodes' British South Africa Company's goals to gain mineral rights, control land north of the Zambezi, and exploit resources like timber, ivory, and animal skins. Before 1905, people crossed the Zambezi above the falls using dugout canoes or barges pulled by steel cables. Rhodes' vision of a Cape-Cairo railway led to plans for the first bridge across the Zambezi. He insisted the bridge be built where the spray from the falls would hit passing trains, so the site at the Second Gorge was chosen. The Victoria Falls Hotel opened in 1904 to welcome visitors arriving by train. The falls became a popular tourist attraction during British rule of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), with the town of Victoria Falls becoming the main tourist center.

In 1964, Northern Rhodesia became the independent nation of Zambia. The following year, Rhodesia declared independence, but this was not recognized by Zambia, the United Kingdom, or most countries, leading to UN-mandated sanctions. In response, Zambia restricted or closed its borders until 1980. The Rhodesian Bush War, which began in 1972, caused military actions across the Zambezi, leading to security measures that limited access to parts of the falls.

Zimbabwe's independence in 1980 brought peace, and the 1980s saw increased tourism and the development of adventure activities like whitewater rafting, bungee jumping, game fishing, horseback riding, kayaking, e-biking, and sightseeing flights. By the late 1990s, nearly 400,000 people visited the falls each year, with expectations of reaching over a million in the next decade. More Zimbabwean and Zambian visitors than international tourists come to the falls because it is accessible by bus and train, making it less expensive to reach.

Historically, more visitors have gone to the Zimbabwean side of the falls due to better-developed facilities there. However, visitor numbers on the Zimbabwean side dropped in the early 2000s due to political tensions in Zimbabwe. In 2006, hotel occupancy on the Zimbabwean side was about 30%, while the Zambian side was nearly full, with top hotels charging up to US$630 per night. Concerns about waste management and environmental protection have led the United Nations to consider removing the falls' World Heritage Site status.

A famous natural feature is the "Devil's Pool," a rock-edged pool on the Zambian side of the falls, near the western tip of Livingstone Island. When the river's flow is at a certain level, usually between September and December, a rock forms an eddy with little current, allowing swimmers to safely splash in the pool near the edge of the falls.

Natural environment

The two national parks near the falls are small in size. Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park covers 66 km (25 square miles), and Victoria Falls National Park covers 23 km (8.9 square miles). Next to Victoria Falls National Park on the southern bank is Zambezi National Park, which stretches 40 km (25 miles) west along the river. Animals can move between the two Zimbabwean parks and also reach nearby areas such as Matetsi Safari Area, Kazuma Pan National Park, and Hwange National Park to the south.

On the Zambian side, fences and the nearby town of Livingstone often limit animals to Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park. Additional fences built by lodges to prevent crime also restrict animal movement.

On Botswana’s side of the border, Chobe National Park is a short distance from Victoria Falls and is a popular destination for day trips by tourists staying in the area for longer periods. Chobe National Park has more varied plant and animal life than Hwange National Park.

In 2004, a special group of police called the Tourism Police was created. These officers are often seen in main tourist areas and wear uniforms with yellow reflective bibs.

Riverine forests with palm trees grow along the banks and islands above the falls. The most unique feature of the area’s vegetation is the rainforest, which is nourished by the spray from the falls. This rainforest contains plants that are rare in the region, such as pod mahogany, ebony, ivory palm, wild date palm, batoko plum, and creepers and lianas. Outside the areas near the river, mopane woodland savannah is the main type of vegetation, with smaller areas of miombo and Rhodesian teak woodland and shrubland savannah. Recent droughts have harmed vegetation and the animals that depend on it, especially antelope.

The national parks have many types of wildlife, including large numbers of African bush elephants, Cape buffalo, giraffes, Grant’s zebras, and various antelope. Lions, African leopards, and South African cheetahs are rarely seen. Vervet monkeys and baboons are common. Southern white rhinoceroses live in Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park. Black rhinoceroses are found in Victoria Falls Private Game Reserve. The river above the falls has large populations of hippopotamus and Nile crocodile. Elephant herds cross the river during the dry season at specific points.

Klipspringers, honey badgers, lizards, and clawless otters can be seen in the gorges, but the area is most famous for its 35 species of birds of prey. These include the Taita falcon, Verreaux’s eagle, peregrine falcon, and augur buzzard. Above the falls, herons, African fish eagles, and many types of waterfowl are commonly found.

The river below the falls is home to 39 species of fish, and above the falls, there are 84 species. This shows how the falls act as a natural barrier between the upper and lower Zambezi River.

In February 2020, National Geographic reported that extreme weather conditions pose a threat to the falls. Rising temperatures are making the region hotter and drier. Water flow varies greatly from year to year, with a noticeable drop in water levels during September, October, November, and December. This is especially true during drought years, which are becoming more common and severe. These changes have affected the appearance of the falls, and there are concerns that Victoria Falls could become one of the last-chance destinations for World Heritage sites.

People in the tourism industry in Zambia and Zimbabwe are discussing the risks to the falls and how to address them.