Tikal (pronounced /t i ˈkɑː l/; Tik'al in modern Mayan writing) is the remains of an ancient city, which was probably called Yax Mutal, located in a rainforest in Guatemala. It is one of the largest places studied by archaeologists and was an important city for the Maya people before the arrival of Europeans. Tikal is in the Petén Basin area, now part of the Petén Department in northern Guatemala. The site is part of Tikal National Park in Guatemala, which was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.

Tikal was the capital of a powerful Maya kingdom. Large buildings at the site date back to as early as the 4th century BC, but the city became most important during the Classic Period, around 200 to 900 AD. During this time, Tikal controlled much of the Maya region politically, economically, and militarily. It also had connections with other places in Mesoamerica, such as the large city of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico. Evidence suggests that one of Tikal’s ruling families was started by people from Teotihuacan in the 4th century AD. After the Late Classic Period ended, no new major buildings were made at Tikal, and there are signs that some important buildings were burned. These events led to a slow decrease in the population, and the city was abandoned by the end of the 10th century.

Tikal is better understood than most other large Maya cities because researchers have found a list of rulers from a family line, the tombs of many of these rulers, and studied their monuments, temples, and homes.

After being forgotten for many years, the site was first examined in 1848. Tikal National Park was created in 1955 to protect the site and 570 square kilometers (220 square miles) of nearby tropical forests, grasslands, and wetlands within the Maya Biosphere Reserve.

Etymology

The name Tikal may come from the Yucatec Maya words "ti ak'al," which means "at the waterhole." This is a more recent name. People who lived in the area, like hunters and travelers, may have used this name to describe one of the ancient reservoirs at the site. Some believe the name might also mean "the place of the voices" in the Itzaʼ Maya language. However, Tikal was not the name used by the ancient people. Instead, it was given to the site around the 1840s, after it was rediscovered. Carved symbols at the ruins show that the ancient city was called Yax Mutal or Yax Mutul, which means "First Mutal." Tikal might have been called Yax Mutal because another city, Dos Pilas, used the same symbol. The rulers of Tikal probably wanted to show they were the first to use that name. The entire kingdom was known as Mutul, which is how the "hair bundle" symbol is read. However, the exact meaning of Mutul is still unknown.

Geography

The nearest large modern cities are Flores and Santa Elena, about 64 kilometers (40 miles) to the southwest by road. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometers (188 miles) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometers (12 miles) south of the modern Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometers (19 miles) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometers (62 miles) southeast of its major Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometers (53 miles) northwest of Calakmul's ally, Caracol, now in Belize.

The city has been fully mapped and covered an area larger than 16 square kilometers (6.2 square miles), including about 3,000 structures. The land features of the site include a series of parallel limestone ridges that rise above swampy lowlands. The main buildings are grouped on higher ground and connected by raised paths that cross the swamps. The area around Tikal has been designated as Tikal National Park, covering 570 square kilometers (220 square miles). The park was established on May 26, 1955, by the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala.

The ruins are located in the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala, which were the home of the lowland Maya civilization. The city was situated near fertile upland soils and may have controlled a natural east-west trade route across the Yucatán Peninsula. Notable trees in the park include the giant kapok tree (Ceiba pentandra), considered sacred by the Maya; tropical cedar (Cedrela odorata); and Honduras mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla). Animals commonly seen in the area include agoutis, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots, and leafcutter ants. Jaguars, ocelots, and cougars are also reported to live in the park.

Tikal had no natural water sources other than rainwater collected and stored in ten reservoirs. In the 20th century, archaeologists working in Tikal restored one of these reservoirs for their own use. The average yearly rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimeters (76.6 inches). However, rain often arrived unpredictably, and long dry periods could occur before crops were ready, which posed serious challenges for the city's inhabitants.

Population

Population estimates for Tikal range from 10,000 to 90,000 people. The population of Tikal grew steadily beginning in the Preclassic Period (about 2000 BC to AD 200), reaching its highest point during the Late Classic Period. This growth happened quickly between AD 700 and AD 830, followed by a sudden drop. In the 120 square kilometers (46 square miles) of land protected by earthwork fortifications in the surrounding area, the highest population was estimated at 517 people per square kilometer (1,340 per square mile). Within a 12-kilometer (7.5-mile) radius of Tikal’s central area, the peak population was estimated at 120,000 people, with a density of 265 people per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a larger region within a 25-kilometer (16-mile) radius, including nearby satellite sites, the peak population was estimated at 425,000 people, with a density of 216 people per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These numbers are notable because much of the surrounding land was swampy and not suitable for living or farming. However, some archaeologists, like David Webster, argue that these estimates may be too high.

History

There are signs of early farming at the site dating back to 1000 BC, during the Middle Preclassic period. A collection of Mamon pottery from around 700–400 BC was found in a sealed chultun, a chamber shaped like a bottle and located underground.

Major construction at Tikal began during the Late Preclassic period, around 400–300 BC, including the building of large pyramids and platforms. However, Tikal was much smaller than other cities farther north, such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal was part of the Chikanel culture, which influenced the Central and Northern Maya areas, including the Yucatán Peninsula, northern and eastern Guatemala, and all of Belize.

Two temples from the Late Chikanel period had stone walls that might have had curved ceilings, though this has not been confirmed. One temple had detailed paintings on its outer walls, showing human figures with a background of scroll-like patterns in colors such as yellow, black, pink, and red.

In the 1st century AD, wealthy burials appeared for the first time, and Tikal experienced a period of political and cultural growth as its large northern neighbors declined. By the end of the Late Preclassic period, art and architecture from the Pacific Coast, known as the Izapan style, began to influence Tikal. This is seen in a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals in the city.

The rule of dynastic kings among the lowland Maya began at Tikal. Later records show that the dynasty was started by Yax Ehb Xook, possibly in the 1st century AD. During the Early Classic period, power in the Maya region was centered in Tikal and Calakmul, the core of the Maya heartland.

Tikal may have gained strength after the collapse of large Preclassic cities like El Mirador. In the Early Classic period, Tikal quickly became the most active city in the Maya region, encouraging the growth of nearby Maya cities.

However, Tikal was often involved in wars. Records describe alliances and conflicts with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo, and Calakmul. At the end of the Early Classic period, Tikal was defeated by Caracol, which became the leading city in the southern Maya lowlands. Earlier in the Early Classic period, Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun had conflicts, with Uaxactun recording the capture of Tikal prisoners.

There was a change in the way leadership was passed down around AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam performed a ceremony marking the end of a Kʼatun period, possibly as the ruler of the city.

As early as 200 AD, Teotihuacan, a distant city in the Valley of Mexico, had representatives in Tikal.

The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ichʼaak (Great Jaguar Paw). He built a palace that later rulers expanded, forming the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ichʼaak except that he was killed on January 14, 378 AD. On the same day, Siyaj Kʼakʼ (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site near Tikal, on January 8. Siyaj Kʼakʼ was called "Lord of the West" on Stela 31. His name is linked to a non-Maya symbol of a spearthrower and an owl, a sign commonly found in Teotihuacan. This suggests Siyaj Kʼakʼ led a Teotihuacan invasion that captured and executed the native Tikal king. Siyaj Kʼakʼ may have been helped by a powerful group in Tikal, as Teotihuacan people were found near the Lost World complex. He also controlled other cities, such as Uaxactun, where he became king. However, he did not take the throne of Tikal. Within a year, Yax Nuun Ahiin I (First Crocodile), the son of Siyaj Kʼakʼ, became the fifteenth king of Tikal at a young age, on September 13, 379. He ruled for 47 years and remained a vassal of Siyaj Kʼakʼ as long as he lived. It is likely that Yax Nuun Ahiin I married a woman from the previous Tikal dynasty, giving him the right to rule.

Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 miles) northeast of Tikal, was conquered during Yax Nuun Ahiin I’s reign. It became a Tikal outpost, protecting the city from northern enemies and serving as a trade link to the Caribbean.

Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants quickly adopted Maya traditions. Tikal became a key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered, Tikal quickly dominated the northern and eastern Peten region. Uaxactun and smaller towns were absorbed into Tikal’s kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá, became vassals of Tikal. By the middle of the 5th century, Tikal controlled a territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 miles) in every direction.

Around the 5th century, a system of fortifications, including ditches and earthworks, was built along Tikal’s northern edge. These defenses connected with natural swamplands to the east and west of the city, likely protecting Tikal’s people and farmland. Recent research suggests these earthworks may have collected water rather than served as defenses.

In the 5th century, Tikal’s influence reached as far south as Copán, where the founder Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Mo’ was clearly connected to Tikal. Copán was not in a Maya region, and its dynasty may have been established with direct help from Tikal. Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Mo’ arrived in Copán in December 426, and evidence shows he spent his childhood and youth in Tikal. A person named Ajaw Kʼukʼ Mo’ is mentioned in early Tikal texts and may be the same individual. His tomb had Teotihuacan features, and he was shown wearing Teotihuac

Site description

Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest Maya cities during the Classic period and one of the largest cities in the Americas. The ancient city’s architecture is made of limestone and includes the remains of temples over 70 meters (230 feet) tall, large royal palaces, smaller pyramids, palaces, homes, administrative buildings, platforms, and carved stone monuments. One building appears to have been a jail, with wooden bars on its windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including three in the Seven Temples Plaza, a feature unique to Mesoamerica.

The limestone used for construction was taken from local quarries. Holes created during stone extraction were covered with plaster to make them waterproof and used as reservoirs, along with some natural depressions. Main plazas were covered with stucco and built with a slope to direct rainwater into canals that filled the reservoirs.

The residential area of Tikal covers about 60 square kilometers (23 square miles), much of which has not been cleared or studied. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 square miles) around the central area has been mapped, and it may have included up to 125 square kilometers (48 square miles). A large trench discovered in the 1960s surrounds Tikal, built behind a rampart. Recent studies show the trench varied in size and was sometimes part of a canal system. The earthworks are more complex than originally thought.

By the Late Classic period, a network of sacbeob (causeways) connected parts of the city. These roads linked the Great Plaza to Temple 4 (about 750 meters west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer southeast). Made of packed and plastered limestone, the causeways were named after explorers, such as the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer, and Méndez causeways. They helped move people during the rainy season and also acted as dams.

The Maler Causeway runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A carved relief on limestone near Group H shows two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The Maudslay Causeway stretches 0.8 kilometers (0.5 miles) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The Méndez Causeway runs 1.3 kilometers (0.81 miles) southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI. The Tozzer Causeway extends west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV.

Water reservoirs were vital for Tikal and other Maya cities. They provided water during dry seasons and had cultural and political importance. Maya societies invested in reservoirs to ensure clean water and strengthen their power. Other cities with notable reservoirs include Calakmul, Caracol, and Naranjo.

Human changes to the environment can have unintended effects. Storing water can lower quality and allow pests like flies and mosquitoes to grow. Improperly stored maize can also lead to harmful fungi that produce toxins. However, the Maya built reservoirs that kept water clean by using plants like the dotleaf waterlily, which prevents algae growth, reduces evaporation, and helps balance water pH. Reservoirs were also lined with clay to stabilize pH levels.

The Corriental reservoir at Tikal had a special filtration system using layers of Clinoptilolite and Mordenite zeolites, along with sand-sized quartz crystals, to remove harmful microbes and toxins.

Royal power in the Maya world was tied to providing resources, like water during droughts. Water and reservoirs became central to Maya leadership. Poor water management could lead to blame on rulers, as seen in the city of Caracol, where droughts between A.D. 804 and 938 caused a drop in rainfall and led to rulers leaving.

The Great Plaza is at Tikal’s center, flanked by two large temple-pyramids on the east and west. The North Acropolis borders it on the north, and the Central Acropolis on the south. The Central Acropolis is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza.

The North Acropolis, with the Great Plaza to the south, is one of the most studied areas in the Maya region. Excavations revealed construction beginning in the Preclassic Period around 350 B.C. It became a burial site for rulers during the Classic Period, with new temples added over older structures. By A.D. 400, tall pyramids were built on an earlier platform, hiding it from view. Eight pyramids were constructed in the 6th century, each with detailed roofcombs and god masks. By the 9th century, 43 stelae and 30 altars were placed there, with 18 carved with hieroglyphs and royal portraits. Burials continued into the Postclassic Period.

The South Acropolis is near Temple V, built on a large platform over 20,000 square meters (220,000 square feet). The Plaza of the Seven Temples is west of the South Acropolis, bordered by a row of nearly identical temples and palaces.

Ecology

Tikal National Park is part of the global Man and the Biosphere Programme, located within the Maya Biosphere Reserve. The park's diverse and rich environment supports many types of plants and animals. Five species of cats live in the park, including the jaguar and puma, along with several types of monkeys and anteaters. Additionally, more than 300 species of birds are found in the park, such as the crane hawk and the ocellated turkey.