Thebes, known to ancient Egyptians as Waset, was an ancient city located along the Nile River, about 800 kilometers (500 miles) south of the Mediterranean Sea. The ruins of Thebes are now found within the modern city of Luxor, Egypt. Thebes was the main city of the fourth Upper Egyptian nome, called the Sceptre nome, and served as the capital of Egypt during parts of the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom periods.

The city was near Nubia and the Eastern Desert, areas rich in valuable minerals and important trade routes. Thebes was a religious center and was highly respected in many periods of ancient Egyptian history.

The area of ancient Thebes includes both sides of the Nile River. On the eastern bank, the temples of Karnak and Luxor were built, and the city itself was located there. On the western bank, there are large burial areas containing private and royal tombs, as well as funerary complexes. In 1979, the ruins of ancient Thebes were recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.

Toponymy

The Egyptian name for Thebes was wꜣs.t, meaning "City of the wꜣs," which refers to the sceptre of the pharaohs. The sceptre was a long staff with an animal's head and a forked base. After the end of the New Kingdom, Thebes was called njw.t-jmn in Egyptian, meaning "City of Amun." Amun was the chief god in the Theban Triad, a group of three deities that also included Mut and Khonsu. This name for Thebes appears in the Tanakh, a collection of Jewish religious texts, as "Nōʼ ʼĀmôn" in the Book of Nahum and as "No" in the Book of Ezekiel and Jeremiah.

The word "Thebes" is sometimes thought to come from the Latin version of the Ancient Greek name Θῆβαι, which was an adapted form of the Demotic Egyptian words tꜣ jpt, meaning "the temple." This refers to the temple known today as Karnak, located on the northeast side of the city. Because Homer, a Greek poet, used this name in his writings, and because the Demotic script appeared later, the origin of the name is unclear. In Homer’s Iliad, the Greeks called the Egyptian city "Thebes of the Hundred Gates" (Θῆβαι ἑκατόμπυλοι, Thēbai hekatómpyloi) to distinguish it from "Thebes of the Seven Gates" (Θῆβαι ἑπτάπυλοι, Thēbai heptápyloi) in Boeotia, Greece.

In the interpretatio graeca, a system used by the Greeks to compare their gods with those of other cultures, Amun was associated with Zeus Ammon. This led to the Greek name for Thebes, "Diospolis," meaning "City of Zeus." To avoid confusion with other cities by this name, it was called "Great Diospolis" (Διόσπολις Μεγάλη, Diospolis Megálē; Latin: Diospolis Magna). These Greek names became more common after Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, when the region was ruled by the Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty.

Characteristics

Thebes was located along the banks of the Nile River in the middle part of Upper Egypt, about 800 km south of the Delta. It was built mostly on the fertile plains of the Nile Valley, which follows a large bend in the river. As a result, the city was arranged in a northeast–southwest direction, matching the path of the river at that time. Thebes covered an area of 93 km² (36 square miles), including parts of the Theban Hills in the west, which reach up to the sacred 420-meter (1,380-foot) al-Qurn. To the east lies the mountainous Eastern Desert, with wadis (dry riverbeds) that flow into the valley. One important wadi near Thebes is Wadi Hammamat, which was used as a trade route to the Red Sea coast. Wadi Hammamat was the main path connecting Egypt to the Red Sea since before the rise of ancient Egyptian dynasties. Around 4,000 years ago, parts of the Uruk civilization reached Egypt through this route. It is likely that Thinis, the capital of Egypt’s First Dynasty, was in the same area as Thebes for this reason. Both cities were at a crossroads in Upper Egypt, where the Nile ran north to south and Saharan trade routes connected to Red Sea maritime routes through Wadi Hammamat in the east-west direction. Another nearby valley, Wadi el-Hol, linked Thebes to an oasis in the Western Desert. This valley is famous for containing the earliest known Proto-Sinatic alphabet inscription, which appeared after Thebes became Egypt’s capital.

Nearby towns in the fourth Upper Egyptian nome included Per-Hathor, Madu, Djerty, Iuny, Sumenu, and Imiotru.

According to George Modelski, Thebes had about 40,000 people in 2000 BC (compared to 60,000 in Memphis, the largest city in the world at that time). By 1800 BC, Memphis had a population of about 30,000, making Thebes the largest city in Egypt. Historian Ian Morris estimated that by 1500 BC, Thebes may have become the largest city in the world, with about 75,000 people, a position it held until around 900 BC, when it was overtaken by cities like Nimrud.

Shomarka Keita reported that a 2005 study of mummified remains found that "some Theban nobles had a histology which indicated notably dark skin."

The ruins of Thebes show how advanced Egyptian civilization was at its peak. The Greek poet Homer praised Thebes’ wealth in the Iliad, Book 9 (around 800 BC): "… in Egyptian Thebes the heaps of precious ingots gleam, the hundred-gated Thebes."

More than sixty festivals were held in Thebes each year. Major festivals, according to the Edfu Geographical Text, included the Beautiful Feast of Opet, the Khoiak Festival, the Festival of I Shemu, the Festival of II Shemu, and a popular celebration called the Beautiful Festival of the Valley, which was similar to Halloween.

History

Thebes was first inhabited around 3200 BC. It was the capital of Waset, the fourth Upper Egyptian nome. At that time, Thebes was a small trading post, while Memphis was the royal home of the Old Kingdom pharaohs. Although no buildings in Thebes are older than parts of the Karnak temple complex from the Middle Kingdom, a lower part of a statue of Pharaoh Nyuserre from the 5th Dynasty was found in Karnak. Another statue, dedicated by the 12th Dynasty king Senusret, may have been reused, as it shows a cartouche of Nyuserre on its belt. Seven rulers from the 4th to 6th Dynasties appear on the Karnak king list, suggesting there may have been a temple in the Theban area during the Old Kingdom.

By 2160 BC, a new line of pharaohs (the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties) controlled Lower Egypt and northern Upper Egypt from their capital in Herakleopolis Magna. A rival line (the Eleventh Dynasty), based in Thebes, ruled the rest of Upper Egypt. The Theban rulers were likely descendants of Intef the Elder, a prince of Thebes. His grandson, Intef I, was the first in his family to claim part of a pharaoh’s title, though his power was limited to the Theban region.

By about 2050 BC, Intef III’s son, Mentuhotep II, took control of Herakleopolis and reunited Egypt, beginning the Middle Kingdom. Mentuhotep II ruled for 51 years and built the first mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri, which inspired later temples, including one built by Hatshepsut in the 18th Dynasty. The 11th Dynasty lasted only a short time, as less than 20 years passed between Mentuhotep II’s death and that of Mentuhotep IV, whose death remains unexplained.

During the 12th Dynasty, Amenemhat I moved the capital north to Itjtawy. Thebes remained a religious center as the god Amun gained importance across Egypt. The oldest temple dedicated to Amun dates to the reign of Senusret I. Thebes was already a large city during the Middle Kingdom. Excavations near Karnak show the city had a grid layout and covered about 250 hectares. Remains of two palatial buildings were also found.

In the later part of the 12th Dynasty, Canaanite people settled in the eastern Nile Delta. They founded the 14th Dynasty at Avaris around 1805 BC or 1710 BC, taking control of much of the Delta from the 13th Dynasty. Later, a group called the Hyksos, meaning “rulers of foreign lands,” invaded Egypt and took over Avaris, starting the 15th Dynasty. The Hyksos controlled Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (1657–1549 BC). When they captured Memphis around 1700 BC, the rulers of the 13th Dynasty fled to Thebes, which became the capital again.

Theban princes (the 16th Dynasty) ruled their region as the Hyksos expanded south. The Thebans agreed to share power with the Hyksos. The Hyksos could trade with Nubians, and Thebans could move herds to the Delta without conflict. This balance ended when a Hyksos ruler, Apophis, insulted Seqenenre Tao of Thebes. Thebes then attacked the Hyksos. Tao died in battle, and his son Kamose led the campaign. After Kamose’s death, his brother Ahmose I captured Avaris and drove the Hyksos out of Egypt and the Levant.

Ahmose I began a new era of unified Egypt with Thebes as its capital. The city remained the capital during most of the 18th Dynasty (New Kingdom). It also became the center for a professional civil service, increasing the need for scribes and literate workers as royal archives grew. Nubians were educated in Egyptian culture to serve as administrators in the colony.

With Egypt stabilized, religion and religious centers flourished, especially in Thebes. Amenhotep III used wealth from foreign tribute to build temples for Amun. The god Amun became a major state deity, and every building project aimed to highlight Amun and the pharaohs. Thutmose I began expanding the Karnak temple, and large temple projects became common during the New Kingdom.

Queen Hatshepsut boosted Thebes’ economy by restoring trade networks, especially the Red Sea trade between Thebes, Al-Qusayr, Elat, and Punt. Her successor, Thutmose III, brought war spoils from as far as Mittani to Thebes. The 18th Dynasty reached its peak during Amenhotep III’s reign (1388–1350 BC). He built the mortuary temple and Malkata palace-city on the west bank of Thebes, along with the Luxor temple and the Avenue of the Sphinxes leading to Karnak.

For a short time during the reign of Amenhotep III’s son, Akhenaten (1351–1334 BC), Thebes declined. The city was abandoned, and the worship of Amun was banned. The capital was moved to Akhetaten (modern Amarna), between Thebes and Memphis. After Akhenaten’s death, his son Tutankhamun returned the capital to Memphis, but Thebes saw renewed temple construction.

In the 19th Dynasty, the capital moved to the Delta. Thebes kept its wealth and prestige during the reigns of Seti I (1290–1279 BC) and Ramesses II (1279–1213 BC), who spent part of each year in Thebes. Ramesses II built statues, obelisks, the third enclosure wall of Karnak, additions to the Luxor temple, and his mortuary temple, the Ramesseum. These projects were funded by taxes from Upper Egypt and gold from Nubia and the Eastern Desert. During Ramesses II’s 66-year reign, Egypt and Thebes reached great prosperity, surpassing earlier achievements.

The city remained well-maintained in the early 20th Dynasty. The Great Harris Papyrus records that Ramesses III (1187–1156 BC) donated 86,486 slaves and estates to the temples of Amun. He received tributes from many peoples, including the Sea Peoples and Meshwesh Libyans. However, Egypt faced financial difficulties, as seen in unrest at Thebes’s village of Deir el-Medina. Workers there began striking for better pay, leading to widespread social unrest.

Major sites

• Ancient built-up area
• Great Temple of Amun at Karnak (Ancient Egyptian Ta-opet). This temple is still the second largest religious building ever built. It was the main place of worship for Amun, the patron deity of Thebes, and the home of the powerful Amun priesthood. Unlike other Egyptian temples, it was built over a long period of more than 2,000 years, starting in the Middle Kingdom. Key features include ten large pylons, the Great Hypostyle Hall, a sacred lake, sub-temples, many shrines, and several obelisks. For much of Ancient Egyptian history, this temple was the most important religious site in the country.
• Luxor Temple (Ipet resyt). This temple differs from others in Thebes because it is not dedicated to a god or a deified king. Instead, it focuses on the renewal of the king’s power. It may have been the place where many Egyptian pharaohs were crowned. The temple is central to the "Opet Festival," during which the sacred barque of the Theban Triad travels from Karnak to Luxor Temple, emphasizing the divine importance of the pharaoh’s re-coronation.
• Temple of Khonsu
• Precinct of Mut
• Precinct of Montu
• Avenue of Sphinxes
• Village of Deir el-Medina
• Malkata palace complex
• Ramesseum
• Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III
• Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
• Mortuary Temple of Seti I
• Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III
• Valley of the Kings
• Valley of the Queens
• Tombs of the Nobles
• The Rise of Aten

Cultural heritage

The two large temples — Luxor Temple and Karnak — and the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens are some of the most important achievements of ancient Egypt.

From October 25, 2018, to January 27, 2019, the Museum of Grenoble, with help from the Louvre and the British Museum, held a three-month exhibition about the city of Thebes and the roles women played in the city during that time.

In popular culture

In the novel The Egyptian (1945) by Mika Waltari, there are detailed descriptions of how Thebes appeared during the 18th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt.

Thebes is a location in the films The Mummy (1999) and The Mummy Returns (2001). In the movies, it is called the "Land of the Living." (In real history, this name was not used for Thebes.) The films show scenes set in ancient Egypt during its most powerful period, which influences the story in the modern setting that takes place about 3,000 years later.