The Sanchi Stupa is a famous Buddhist site located in Sanchi Town, Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh, India. It is about 23 kilometers from Raisen town, the district headquarters, and 46 kilometers (29 miles) northeast of Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the oldest stone structures in India and an important example of ancient Indian architecture. It was originally built by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. The original structure was a simple hemispherical brick building that held the relics of the Buddha. It was topped with a chatra, a parasol-like structure that symbolized high rank and was meant to honor and protect the relics. Ashoka, whose wife Devi was born in Sanchi and married him there, oversaw the construction. In the 1st century BCE, four ornate toranas (gateways) and a surrounding balustrade were added to the stupa. The stupa built during the Mauryan period was made of bricks and remained significant until the 11th century.

Sanchi is the center of a region with many nearby stupas. These include Satdhara, 9 kilometers west of Sanchi, which has 40 stupas and where relics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana were discovered and are now kept in a new Vihara. Bhojpur, also called Morel Khurd, is a hilltop with 60 stupas. Andher is 11 kilometers southeast of Sanchi, and Sonari is 10 kilometers southwest. Further south, about 100 kilometers away, is Saru Maru. Bharhut is located 300 kilometers northeast of Sanchi.

The Sanchi Stupa is shown on the back of the ₹200 Indian currency note to highlight its importance to India’s cultural heritage.

Overview

The monuments at Sanchi today include a group of Buddhist structures built during the Mauryan Empire (3rd century BCE), the Gupta Empire (5th century CE), and ending around the 12th century CE. These are likely the best-preserved Buddhist monuments in India. The oldest and largest structure, called the Great Stupa or Stupa No. 1, was first built during the Mauryan Empire and decorated with one of Ashoka’s pillars. Over time, especially during the Shunga and Satavahana periods, the Great Stupa was expanded and added with gates, railings, and smaller stupas nearby, such as Stupa No. 2 and Stupa No. 3.

At the same time, temple buildings were also constructed, continuing through the Gupta Empire and later periods. Together, Sanchi shows many changes in ancient Indian and Buddhist architecture, from the early years of Buddhism and its first artistic forms to the later decline of the religion in the region.

• A general view of the Stupas at Sanchi, taken by F.C. Maisey in 1851 (The Great Stupa on top of the hill, and Stupa 2 at the forefront)
• The Great Stupa (Stupa No. 1), started in the 3rd century BCE
• Stupa No. 2
• Stupa No. 3
• Buddhist Temple, No. 17

Mauryan Period (3rd century BCE)

The "Great Stupa" at Sanchi is the oldest structure in the area and was first built by Emperor Ashoka the Great of the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE. Its core was a large, half-sphere-shaped brick structure built over the sacred remains of the Buddha. A raised platform surrounded its base, and a railing and a stone umbrella, called the chatra, stood on top. The chatra resembled a parasol and symbolized high status. The original Stupa was about half the size of the current one, which was enlarged later by the Shungas. At first, it was covered in brick, but now it is covered in stone.

According to one version of the Mahavamsa, a historical record from Sri Lanka, Ashoka had a close connection to Sanchi. When he was the heir to the throne and traveling as Viceroy to Ujjain, he stopped at Vidisha, a town 10 kilometers from Sanchi. There, he married the daughter of a local banker named Devi. Devi later gave birth to two sons, Ujjeniya and Mahendra, and a daughter, Sanghamitta. After Ashoka became emperor, Mahendra led a Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka, likely at Ashoka's request. Before leaving, Mahendra visited his mother at Chetiyagiri near Vidisha, believed to be near Sanchi. She had a grand monastery built there for his stay.

A pillar made of finely polished sandstone, one of the Pillars of Ashoka, was placed near the main Torana gateway. Only the bottom part of the pillar remains at the site, while the upper parts are kept in the Sanchi Archaeological Museum. The top of the pillar had four lions, which may have once supported a Wheel of Law, as shown in later carvings at Sanchi. The pillar has two inscriptions: one from Ashoka, called the Schism Edict, and another from the Gupta period in an ornamental script. The Ashokan inscription is written in early Brahmi characters but is damaged. It contains rules about punishing those who caused division within the Buddhist community, similar to inscriptions found at Sarnath and Kausambi.

When complete, the pillar was about 42 feet tall. It had a smooth, round shaft that narrowed slightly toward the top, with a bell-shaped capital. Above the capital was a flat surface decorated with four flame-like designs separated by pairs of geese, possibly representing the Buddha's followers. The lions at the top, though now damaged, show the skill of the sculptors. The sandstone used for the pillar was brought from quarries in Chunar, hundreds of miles away. This suggests that builders transported a massive stone block over forty feet long and weighing many tons using waterways, likely on rafts during the rainy season.

Another structure, known as Temple 40, has been dated to the 3rd century BCE. It is considered one of the earliest examples of free-standing temples in India. Remains of three different construction periods have been found at the site. The earliest dates to the Maurya Empire, possibly making it built at the same time as the Great Stupa. An inscription suggests it may have been built by Bindusara, Ashoka’s father. The original temple from the 3rd century BCE was built on a large stone platform measuring 26.52 meters by 14 meters by 3.35 meters. It had two staircases on the east and west sides and was likely made of wood. It was destroyed by fire in the 2nd century BCE.

Later, the platform was expanded to 41.76 meters by 27.74 meters, and a hall with fifty pillars (arranged in a 5×10 grid) was built on top. Some pillar bases remain. Some of these pillars have inscriptions from the 2nd century BCE. In the 7th or 8th century, a small shrine was built in one corner of the platform, using some of the old pillars and placing them in their current positions.

Shunga period (2nd century BCE)

Based on the Ashokavadana, it is believed that the stupa may have been damaged sometime during the 2nd century BCE. Some sources connect this event to Pushyamitra Shunga, a Shunga emperor who took control of the Mauryan Empire as a military leader. It has been suggested that Pushyamitra may have destroyed the original stupa, and his son Agnimitra later rebuilt it. During the Shunga period, the original brick stupa was covered with stone.

The Shunga state was not highly centralized, with many cities producing their own coins. Some scholars argue that the structures built during the Shunga period in Sanchi cannot be called "Shunga" because they were not supported by the royal family, unlike those built during the Mauryan Empire. Instead, the dedications at Sanchi were made by private individuals or groups, not by the royal court.

The decorations from the Shunga period at Sanchi resemble those found at Bharhut and the outer railings of the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya.

Later in the Shunga period, the stupa was expanded using stone slabs, nearly doubling its original size. The dome was flattened at the top and crowned with three stacked parasols inside a square railing. The structure, with its many levels, symbolized the dharma, or the Wheel of the Law. The dome rested on a tall circular base for walking around the stupa, which could be reached by a double staircase. A second stone path at ground level was enclosed by a stone railing. The railings around Stupa 1 do not have artistic carvings, only slabs with dedicatory inscriptions. These features are dated to about 150 BCE, or between 175–125 BCE. Although the railings are made of stone, they are modeled after a wooden design. As noted by John Marshall, the joints between the stones are cut at an angle, like wood, not vertically as stone is typically cut. In addition to short donor records in Brahmi script on the railings, two later inscriptions from the Gupta Period were added. Some reliefs on the stairway balustrade are visible, but they are likely slightly later than those on Stupa No. 2 and date to 125–100 BCE. Some scholars believe these reliefs, which are simple and not clearly linked to Buddhism, are the oldest at Sanchi, even older than the reliefs on Stupa No. 2.

Stupas built during the Shunga period include the Second and Third stupas, but not the highly decorated gateways, which were added later during the Satavahana period, as recorded in inscriptions. These stupas followed the ground-level railing and stone covering of the Great Stupa (Stupa No. 1). The reliefs on these stupas are dated to about 115 BCE for the medallions and 80 BCE for the pillar carvings, slightly earlier than the earliest reliefs at Bharhut, with some repairs continuing until the 1st century CE.

Stupa No. 2 was built after the Great Stupa but displays the earliest known architectural decorations. For the first time, Buddhist themes are clearly shown, including the four key events in the Buddha’s life: his birth, enlightenment, first sermon, and death.

The decorations on Stupa No. 2 are considered the oldest extensive stupa decorations in existence. This stupa is also believed to be the birthplace of Jataka illustrations, which tell stories of the Buddha’s past lives. The reliefs on Stupa No. 2 include mason marks in Kharoshthi script, unlike the local Brahmi script. This suggests that workers from the northwest region of Gandhara, where Kharoshthi was commonly used, may have created the designs on the stupa’s railings. Evidence of this connection includes the 115 BCE embassy of Heliodorus, an envoy from the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas, to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra in Vidisha. Heliodorus later erected the Heliodorus pillar as a dedication to Vāsudeva.

Stupa No. 3 was built during the Shunga period, along with its railing and staircase. It is said to contain the relics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana, two of the Buddha’s disciples. Relics boxes found during excavations support this claim.

The reliefs on the railings of Stupa No. 3 are slightly later than those on Stupa No. 2.

The single torana gateway facing south was not built during the Shunga period but was added later under the Satavahanas, likely around 50 BCE.

Pillar 25 at Sanchi is also attributed to the Shunga period, dating to the 2nd–1st century BCE. It resembles the Heliodorus pillar, known locally as the Kham Baba pillar, which was erected by Heliodorus, the envoy of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas, in Vidisha around 100 BCE. The pillar’s design and surface details confirm its connection to the Shunga period.

The pillar, including its capital, is 15 feet tall, with a base diameter of 1 foot 4 inches. Up to 4 feet 6 inches, the shaft is octagonal; above that, it becomes sixteen-sided. On the octagonal section, all sides are flat, but on the upper part, alternate sides are fluted, while the remaining sides are shaped by a concave edge. This method of finishing the edges between the octagonal and sixteen-sided sections is typical of the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. The west side of the shaft is broken, but the top tenon, which once held the capital, remains intact. The capital is bell-shaped, like those at Persepolis, with lotus leaves draping the bell’s sides. Above the bell is a circular cable necking, followed by a second circular necking decorated with a bead and lozenge pattern, and finally a deep square abacus with a railing carved in relief. The top feature, likely a lion, is missing.

Satavahana period (1st century BCE – 1st century CE)

The Satavahana Empire, led by King Satakarni II, took control of eastern Malwa from the Shungas. This allowed the Satavahanas to reach the Buddhist site of Sanchi, where they are believed to have built the decorated gateways around the original Mauryan and Shunga stupas. These highly decorated gateways were constructed starting around the 1st century BCE. The balustrades and gateways were also painted. Later gateways, called toranas, are usually dated to the 1st century CE.

An inscription in the Brahmi script, called the Siri-Satakani inscription, records that artisans from King Satakarni II’s kingdom donated one of the top architraves of the Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa:

— Inscription of the Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa

There are some questions about the exact time and identity of the Satakarni mentioned, as another king named Satakarni is noted in the Hathigumpha inscription, sometimes dated to the 2nd century BCE. Many Satavahana kings used the name "Satakarni," which makes it harder to identify the correct one. Most sources say the gateways were built between 50 BCE and the 1st century CE, and Satakarni II, who ruled from 50 to 25 BCE, is usually credited as the builder. Another early Satavahana monument is Cave No.19 at the Nasik Caves, built by King Kanha (100–70 BCE), but it is less artistically developed than the Sanchi toranas.

Although made of stone, the torana gateways were carved and built to look like wood. They were covered with carvings that told stories. Some believe the stone reliefs were made by ivory carvers from Vidisha, a nearby area. An inscription on the Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa, titled "The Worship of the Bodhisattva's Hair," was dedicated by the Guild of Ivory Carvers of Vidisha. The inscription says: "Vedisakehi damtakārehi rupakammam katam," which means "The ivory-workers from Vidisha have done the carving."

The carvings show scenes from the Buddha’s life mixed with everyday events that people could relate to, helping them understand Buddhist teachings. At Sanchi and other stupas, local people donated money to decorate the stupa to gain spiritual merit. Kings did not directly fund the work. Instead, devotees, both men and women, often chose their favorite scene from the Buddha’s life and had their names carved on it. This explains why certain scenes appear repeatedly on the stupa.

On these carvings, the Buddha was never shown as a human figure because of a rule in Buddhism called aniconism. Instead, artists used symbols like the horse the Buddha rode when he left his home, his footprints, or a canopy under the bodhi tree where he reached enlightenment. The human body was thought to be too limiting to represent the Buddha.

Similar designs were found in the capitals of northern India from the time of Ashoka to the Satavahanas at Sanchi. These include the Pataliputra capital (3rd century BCE), the pillar capitals at the Sunga Empire’s Bharhut site (2nd century BCE), and the Satavahana pillar capitals at Sanchi (1st century BCE/CE).

The earliest known example, the Pataliputra capital, has repeating patterns like rosettes, ovolos, bead-and-reel designs, wave-like scrolls, and side volutes with central rosettes around a central flame palmette. These designs are similar to those in Classical Greek art, and the capital is sometimes described as quasi-Ionic. Greek and Persian Achaemenid influences are also suggested.

The Sarnath capital, found at the ancient Buddhist site of Sarnath, has Ionic volutes and palmettes. It has been dated to the Mauryan Empire (3rd century BCE) or the Sunga Empire (1st century BCE). One side shows a galloping horse with a rider, and the other shows an elephant with its mahout.

The Bharhut pillar capital (2nd century BCE) includes similar features, like rosettes, beads-and-reels, and a central palmette. Recumbent animals, such as lions (symbols of Buddhism), were also added, similar to the Pillars of Ashoka.

The Sanchi pillar capital keeps the general design seen at Bharhut, with recumbent lions around a central post and a flame palmette. The central post is simpler, allowing the flame palmette to take up more space. Later, elephants were used on pillar capitals, and eventually, Yakshas (with the palmette design removed).

Many Jataka tales are illustrated on the carvings. These are Buddhist stories about the Buddha’s past lives as a Bodhisattva. Examples include the Syama Jataka, the Vessantara Jataka, and the Mahakapi Jataka.

Numerous miracles performed by the Buddha are shown, such as walking on water and making fire burn wood. Other scenes depict the Buddha being tempted by Mara’s daughters and his army of demons. After resisting the temptations, the Buddha achieves enlightenment. Similar scenes include Mara’s army fleeing and the Buddha’s enlightenment with Mara’s army fleeing.

The southern gate of Stupa No.1, believed to be the oldest and main entrance, shows the story of the Buddha’s relics, starting with the War over the Relics. After the Buddha’s death, the Mallakas of Kushinagar wanted to keep his ashes, but other kingdoms also wanted a share, leading to a war. An agreement was reached, and the relics were divided among eight royal families and disciples. This scene shows warfare techniques from the Satavahana

Later periods

Over many centuries, more stupas and other religious Buddhist buildings were added to Sanchi until the 12th century CE.

The Satavahana rulers controlled Sanchi during the 1st centuries BCE and CE. Evidence of their rule includes Satavahana copper coins found in places like Vidisha, Ujjain, and Eran, which are marked with the name "Satakarni." A stone inscription on the Southern Gateway of Stupa No.1 also mentions Satakarni.

Soon after, the region was taken over by the Scythian Western Satraps. This happened under Nahapana around 120 CE and later under Rudradaman I between 130 and 150 CE, as shown by his inscriptions in Junagadh. The Satavahanas may have briefly regained control but were later replaced by the Western Satraps again in the mid-3rd century CE during the rule of Rudrasena II (255–278 CE). The Western Satraps remained in power until the 4th century, as noted by the Kanakerha inscription, which records the construction of a well by Sridharavarman, a Saka leader who ruled around 339–368 CE. This suggests the Kushan Empire did not control Sanchi, and the few Kushan artworks found there likely came from Mathura. For example, some statues from Mathura, made during the reign of Kushan ruler Vasishka (247–267 CE), were discovered in Sanchi.

The Guptas became the next rulers of the area. Inscriptions from Chandragupta II, dated between 412 and 423 CE, are found on the railing near the Eastern Gateway of the Great Stupa.

Temple 17 is an early example of a standalone temple, built during the early Gupta period (likely the first quarter of the 5th century CE). It may have been used by Buddhists, though this is not certain. This temple is considered an early model that later influenced Hindu temple design. It has a flat roofed square chamber with a portico and four pillars. The inside and three sides of the exterior are plain, but the front and pillars are beautifully carved, giving the temple a "classical" look similar to 2nd-century rock-cut temples at the Nasik Caves. The four columns are traditional, with octagonal shafts rising from square bases to bell-shaped capitals, topped by large blocks carved with back-to-back lions.

Next to Temple 17 is Temple 18, a mostly 7th-century apsidal chaitya-hall temple, possibly Buddhist or Hindu. It was rebuilt over an earlier structure and likely had a wooden and thatch roof.

Near the Northwest Gateway, a Vajrapani pillar once stood. Another pillar, dedicated to Padmapani, also stood there, and its statue is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.

Pillar No.26 is located slightly north of the Sunga pillar No.25. It dates to the early Gupta period and is unique because of its hard, pale buff stone with streaks of amethyst. This type of stone was only used in Gupta-period monuments at Sanchi. The pillar was about 22 feet 6 inches tall and made of two pieces: one for the shaft and base, and another for the bell-capital, necking, lions, and chakra. A short, damaged inscription on the base records the gift of the pillar by a viharasvamin (monastery leader), the son of Gotaisimhabala.

The square base of this pillar extended above ground by 1 foot 2 inches and was surrounded by a small platform. Its lion capital is a weak copy of the one from Asoka’s pillars, with a wheel at the top and other differences. The cable necking above the bell-capital consists of strands tied with a ribbon, and the reliefs on the abacus show irregularly sized birds and lotuses. The lions on this pillar have five claws on each foot, and their design lacks the accuracy and artistry of earlier works.

There has been confusion about the dating of this pillar, as it was often mistaken for an Asoka pillar. Marshall, an expert, argued it is from the early Gupta period based on material, technique, and artistry. However, some sources, like the Government of India Photo Division and the British Library, incorrectly describe it as a 3rd-century BCE Mauryan pillar. Sachim Kumar Tiwary, in his book on Gupta pillars, supports a Gupta date. The Sanchi Archaeological Museum dates it to 600 CE, placing it in the Later Gupta dynasty.

A large pillar near the North Gateway, numbered 35, was built during the Gupta period. Though most of its shaft is destroyed, the remaining stump and intact foundation remain. The platform around its base is clearly visible, and the capital and statue it once supported are well-preserved. The remaining shaft is 9 feet long, with 3 feet 10 inches of the circular, smooth part and the rest forming a square, rough base. Unlike Mauryan pillars, which had circular bases, Gupta pillars typically had square bases. The surface of this pillar is not as polished as Mauryan columns.

The Persepolitan capital and square abacus with a balustrade relief are carved from a single stone block. A statue found nearby, believed to belong to the same pillar, depicts a man wearing a dhoti, bracelets, earrings, and a bejeweled necklace and headdress. His hair is curly, and two ribbons fall from the back. The statue is thought to represent Vajrapani, indicated by a vajra thunderbolt in his right hand and a halo with 24 rays. A 5th-century inscription mentions the dedication of the Vajrapani pillar.

The statue’s halo has 12 evenly spaced holes, likely for attaching copper-gilt rays. The halo is too small for the statue’s size, suggesting the rays were added later. The statue, now in the Sanchi Archaeological Museum, is dated to the 5th century CE.

After the Gupta Empire fell to the Alchon Huns and Buddhism declined in India, Buddhist art at Sanchi slowed. Temple 45 was the last Buddhist temple built during the mid to late 9th century.

Sanchi and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara

The first artists who created stone reliefs at Sanchi likely came from Gandhara. The earliest reliefs were carved at Sanchi Stupa No. 2 around 115 BCE. Over time, the art of Sanchi developed significantly during the 1st century BCE and CE. This art is believed to have appeared before the rise of Greco-Buddhist art in Gandhara, which became prominent until about the 4th century CE. The art of Sanchi is considered the earliest example of didactic Buddhist art, which later influenced styles like that of Gandhara. Along with Bharhut, Sanchi is the oldest known example of this type of art.

As Gandhara adopted didactic Buddhist reliefs, the content changed with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, a form of Buddhism that focused more on gods and religious figures. While many themes remained the same, such as the story of Maya's dream, the Great Departure, and Mara's attacks, stories about the Buddha’s past lives were replaced by more stories about Bodhisattvas from the Mahayana tradition. Another key difference was how the Buddha was depicted: Sanchi art used aniconic styles, meaning it did not show the Buddha’s image directly, while Gandhara art included images of the Buddha as a man wearing Greek-style clothing, which became central to its reliefs.

Evidence shows Greeks were present near Sanchi during this time, such as the Indo-Greek ambassador Heliodorus at Vidisha around 100 BCE, Greek-like figures depicted at Sanchi worshiping the Great Stupa, and Greek "Yavana" devotees who left dedicatory inscriptions at Sanchi. However, details about how these cultural exchanges happened or the specific routes used are not clearly known.

Western Discovery

General Henry Taylor (1784–1876), a British officer during the Third Maratha War (1817–1819), was the first Western historian to write about the Sanchi Stupa in 1818. At that time, the site was completely abandoned. In 1822, Sir Herbert Maddock damaged the Great Stupa but could not reach its center, and he left the site. In 1851, Alexander Cunningham and Frederick Charles Maisey conducted the first official survey and excavation of Sanchi and nearby stupas. Until 1881, amateur archaeologists and treasure hunters damaged the site. Restoration work began in 1881. From 1912 to 1919, the structures were restored to their current condition under the guidance of Sir John Marshall.

In the 19th century, Europeans were very interested in the Sanchi Stupa, which was originally built by Emperor Ashoka. The French asked for permission to take the eastern gateway to France. The English, who had political control in India, also wanted to move the gateway to England for a museum. Instead, they accepted plaster copies of the gateway, and the original remained at the site, which was part of the Bhopal state. The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money to preserve the site. John Marshall, who led the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928, honored Sultan Jehan by dedicating his books on Sanchi to her. She also funded the museum built at the site. Sanchi Stupa is one of the earliest and most important examples of Buddhist art and culture. It has greatly changed how people understand early Indian history and Buddhism. Today, it is a well-preserved site protected by the Archaeological Survey of India. Its importance is shown by the Reserve Bank of India, which included Sanchi Stupa on 200-rupee banknotes in 2017.

Few artifacts from Sanchi are found in Western museums because the site remained mostly intact. For example, a Gupta statue of Padmapani is in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and one of the Yashinis is in the British Museum.

Today, about fifty monuments remain on the hill of Sanchi, including three main stupas and several temples. These monuments have been listed as part of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1989.

The carvings on Sanchi, especially those showing ancient Indian cities, have helped people imagine what ancient Indian cities looked like. Many modern drawings and models are based on these carvings.

• Great Stupa, Eastern Gateway, 1875
• West Gateway, 1882
• South Gateway, 1882
• Great Stupa, Northern Gateway, 1861
• Temple 18, 1861
• A vision of ancient Indian court life, using motifs from Sanchi (wood engraving, 1878)

Chetiyagiri Vihara and the Sacred Relics

The bone remains (asthi avashesh) of Buddhist teachers, along with the containers holding them, were taken by Maisey and Cunningham to England as personal items. Maisey's family later sold these items to the Victoria and Albert Museum, where they remained for many years. Buddhists in England, Sri Lanka, and India, led by the Mahabodhi Society, asked for the relics to be returned. Some relics of Sariputta and Moggallana were sent back to Sri Lanka and shown to the public in 1947. This was an important event, and many people in Sri Lanka visited them. Later, the relics were returned to India. In 1952, a new temple called Chetiyagiri Vihara was built to hold the relics. This event marked the official revival of the Buddhist tradition in India. Some of the relics were also taken by Burma.

Inscriptions

Sanchi, particularly Stupa 1, contains many Brahmi inscriptions. Most of these inscriptions are small and describe donations, but they are important for understanding history. In 1837, James Prinsep observed that many of these inscriptions ended with the same two Brahmi characters. Prinsep interpreted these characters as "danam," meaning donation, which helped in decoding the Brahmi script.

A study of the donation records shows that many donors were local, though their specific towns are not mentioned. Some donors came from cities such as Ujjain, Vidisha, Kurara, Nadinagar, Mahisati, Kurghara, Bhogavadhan, and Kamdagigam. Three inscriptions at Sanchi are known to be from Yavana (Indo-Greek) donors. One of these reads "Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam," meaning "Gift of the Yona of Setapatha." Setapatha is a city whose name is not certain.

Literature

• Dehejia, Vidya. (1992). Collective and Popular Bases of Early Buddhist Patronage: Sacred Monuments, 100 BC-AD 250. In B. Stoler Miller (ed.) The Powers of Art. Published by Oxford University Press in Oxford. ISBN 0-19-562842-X.
• Dehejia, Vidya. (1997). Indian Art. Published by Phaidon in London. ISBN 0-7148-3496-3.
• Harle, J.C. The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edition. Published by Yale University Press as part of the Pelican History of Art series in 1994. ISBN 0300062176.
• Marshall, Sir John. A Guide to Sanchi. Published by the Indian Government in Calcutta in 1918.
• Michell, George. (1988). The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms. Published by the University of Chicago Press in 1977. ISBN 978-0-226-53230-1.
• Michell, George. (1990). The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu. Published by Penguin Books in 1990. ISBN 0140081445.
• Mitra, Debala. (1971). Buddhist Monuments. Published by Sahitya Samsad in Calcutta. ISBN 0-89684-490-0.
• Rowland, Benjamin. The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. 3rd edition published by Penguin as part of the Pelican History of Art series in 1967. ISBN 0140561021.
• Life in Sanchi Sculpture by A. L. Srivastava.