Samarkand is a city in southeastern Uzbekistan and one of the oldest cities in Central Asia that has been continuously lived in. It is the capital of the Samarkand Region and includes smaller areas such as Kimyogarlar, Farhod, and Khishrav. With about 551,700 people (as of 2021), it is the third-largest city in Uzbekistan.

Historically, Samarkand has been an important city in Central Asia for the Iranian (Persian-Tajik) culture and played a key role in trade and cultural exchanges along the Silk Road. Evidence of people living in the area dates back to the late Paleolithic period. Although the exact founding date is unknown, some experts believe it was established between the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Because of its location on the Silk Road, Samarkand became a major city in Central Asia. During the Persian Achaemenid Empire, it was the capital of the Sogdian region. The city was conquered by Alexander the Great in 329 BC, when it was called Markanda in Greek. It remained under the control of Iranian and Turkic rulers until the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan, captured it in 1220.

Since the 11th century, Samarkand has been ruled by Turkic/Uzbek leaders, but its culture and main language have remained Persian. The city is known for being a center of Islamic learning and for the Timurid Renaissance, a period of cultural and artistic growth. In the 14th century, Timur made Samarkand the capital of his empire and built the Gur-e Amir mausoleum there. The Bibi-Khanym Mosque, rebuilt during the Soviet era, is one of the city’s most famous landmarks. The Registan square, once the city’s central area, is surrounded by three large religious buildings. Samarkand has preserved traditional crafts such as embroidery, goldwork, silk weaving, copper engraving, ceramics, wood carving, and wood painting. In 2001, UNESCO added Samarkand to its World Heritage List as a place where many cultures met and shared ideas.

Today, Samarkand has two main areas: the old city, which includes historical buildings, shops, and traditional homes; and the new city, developed during the Russian Empire and Soviet Union, which has government buildings, cultural centers, and schools. In September 2022, the city hosted the 2022 SCO summit.

Samarkand has a history of many different cultures and languages, which changed after the division of Central Asian countries. Some people in the city speak both Tajik and Uzbek, while Uzbek is the official language. Russian is also widely used in public life, as stated by Uzbekistan’s language policies.

Name

The city was called Marakanda when Alexander the Great captured it in 329 BC.

Some sources suggest the current name, Samarkand, comes from the Sogdian language, which was spoken in ancient times. In Sogdian, "samar" means "stone" or "rock," and "kand" means "fort" or "town." This is similar to the name of the Uzbek capital, Tashkent, where "tash" means "stone" in Turkic languages, and "kent" means "town," borrowed from Iranian languages. However, this connection cannot be proven because the city was given its name long after the Sogdians became part of Turkic culture.

More reliable historical sources, such as the 11th-century scholar Mahmud al-Kashghari, say the city was known in Karakhanid Turkic as Sämizkänd or Sämerkänd, which means "fat city." The 16th-century Mughal emperor Babur also referred to the city by this name. A 15th-century Castillian traveler named Ruy González de Clavijo wrote that Samarkand was a changed version of this name.

Different languages have their own ways of writing the name, such as "Samarcande" in French, "Samarcanda" in Italian and Spanish, and "Semerkant" in Turkish.

History

Samarkand, along with Bukhara, is one of the oldest cities in Central Asia. It grew wealthy because of its position on the trade route between China and Europe. There is no clear evidence of when the city was first built. Experts from the Institute of Archaeology in Samarkand believe the city was founded around 700 BC.

Archaeologists digging in areas like Syob, midtown, and suburban places such as Hojamazgil and Sazag'on found signs of human activity that are 40,000 years old. These signs date back to the Upper Paleolithic period. In the suburbs of Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, and Okhalik, they found sites from the Mesolithic period (12,000–7,000 BC). The Syob and Darg'om canals, which provided water to the city and its suburbs, were built around the 7th–5th centuries BC during the early Iron Age.

From its earliest days, Samarkand was a key center of the Sogdian civilization. By the time of the Achaemenid dynasty in Persia, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian satrapy. Alexander the Great captured Samarkand in 329 BC. The Greeks called the city Maracanda. Written records mention a leader named Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of Alexander."

Although Samarkand suffered damage during Alexander’s conquest, it quickly recovered and thrived under Greek influence. New building techniques were introduced, such as replacing oblong bricks with square ones and improving masonry and plastering methods. Greek culture spread to Central Asia, influencing local artisans. This Hellenistic influence continued as the city became part of the Seleucid Empire, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and Kushan Empire. After the Kushan Empire lost control of Sogdia in the 3rd century AD, Samarkand declined as a center of power. It did not regain strength until the 5th century.

In about 260 AD, the Persian Sasanians conquered Samarkand. Under Sasanian rule, the region became an important place for Manichaeism, a religion that spread throughout Central Asia. Between AD 350 and 375, the Xionites, a nomadic group, captured Samarkand. Archaeological evidence from the 4th century shows that nomadic people moved to the area, spreading their culture. Between 457 and 509, Samarkand was part of the Kidarite state.

After the Hephthalites ("White Huns") took control of Samarkand, they ruled it until the Göktürks, with help from the Sassanid Persians, won it in the Battle of Bukhara around 560 AD. In the middle of the 6th century, a Turkic state called the Turkic Khaganate was formed in Altai by the Ashina dynasty. The Hephthalites were defeated by the Turks and Sassanids between 557 and 561, creating a shared border between the two empires.

In the early Middle Ages, Samarkand had four rows of defensive walls and four gates. An ancient Turkic burial site with a horse was found in Samarkand and dates back to the 6th century. During the rule of Tong Yabghu Qaghan of the Western Turkic Khaganate (618–630), he formed a family relationship with the ruler of Samarkand by giving him his daughter.

Parts of Samarkand were Christian as early as the 4th century. In the 5th century, a Nestorian church was established there. By the early 8th century, it became a Nestorian metropolitanate. Debates between Sogdian Christians and followers of Manichaeism are recorded in documents.

In about 710 AD, the armies of the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Qutayba ibn Muslim, captured Samarkand from the Tang dynasty. At this time, the city was home to many religions, including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Manichaeism, Judaism, and Nestorian Christianity. Most people followed Zoroastrianism. Qutayba did not settle Arabs in Central Asia but forced local rulers to pay tribute. However, in Samarkand, he built an Arab garrison, destroyed Zoroastrian fire temples, and constructed a mosque. Many people converted to Islam.

As a result, Samarkand became a center for Islamic and Arabic learning. In the late 740s, a movement against the Umayyads led by Abu Muslim began. After his success, he chose Samarkand as his residence and built a long defensive wall and a palace.

It is said that during Abbasid rule, the secret of papermaking was learned from two Chinese prisoners captured in the Battle of Talas in 751. This led to the first paper mill in the Islamic world being built in Samarkand. The invention of papermaking later spread to Europe.

Abbasid control of Samarkand ended, and the Samanids (875–999) took over. The Samanids were still loyal to the Caliph but made Samarkand a capital and a key trading hub. The Samanids were later replaced by the Karakhanids around 999. For the next 200 years, Samarkand was ruled by Turkic tribes, including the Seljuqs and Khwarazmshahs.

In the 10th century, the Persian writer Istakhri described the natural wealth of the region he called "Smarkandian Sogd." After the Samanids fell in 999, the Karakhanid dynasty ruled Samarkand. The Karakhanids split into two parts, and Samarkand became the capital of the Western Karakhanid Khaganate from 1040 to 1212. Ibrahim Tamgach Khan, the founder of the Western Karakhanid Khaganate, built the first madrasa in Samarkand with state funds and supported cultural development. He also established a public hospital and a madrasa where medicine was taught.

The Shah-i-Zinda memorial complex was built by the Karakhanid rulers in the 11th century. The most notable structure from the Karakhanid era was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein, built in the 12th century. During excavations, fragments of painted artwork were found, including scenes of a Turkic warrior, horses, hunting dogs, birds, and women.

In 1220,

Geography

Samarkand is situated in the southeastern part of Uzbekistan, within the Zarefshan River valley, 135 kilometers from Qarshi. Road M37 connects Samarkand to Bukhara, which is 240 kilometers away. Road M39 links Samarkand to Tashkent, located 270 kilometers from Samarkand. The border with Tajikistan is approximately 35 kilometers from Samarkand, and the capital of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, is 210 kilometers away. Road M39 also connects Samarkand to Mazar-i-Sharif in Afghanistan, which is 340 kilometers from Samarkand.

Samarkand has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk), characterized by hot, dry summers and relatively wet, variable winters that include both warm and cold periods. July and August are the hottest months, with temperatures often reaching or exceeding 40 °C (104 °F). Rainfall is limited from June through October but increases to a peak between February and April. In January 2008, temperatures dropped to −22 °C (−8 °F), marking one of the coldest months recorded.

People

According to official reports, most people living in Samarkand are Uzbeks. However, some sources say that Tajiks make up the majority of the population, possibly as many as 70%. Tajiks are often found in the eastern part of the city, where important buildings and landmarks are located.

Other independent sources state that Tajiks are the largest ethnic group in Samarkand. Uzbeks are the second-largest group and are mostly found in the western part of the city. Exact numbers are hard to find because some people in Uzbekistan identify as "Uzbek" even though they speak Tajik as their first language. This often happens because the government registers them as Uzbeks, even if they are Tajik in language and culture, as explained by Paul Bergne.

Samarkand is also home to many other ethnic groups, including "Iranis" (a group of Persian-speaking Shia people from Merv, who were moved to Samarkand in the late 18th century), Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Armenians, Azeris, Tatars, Koreans, Poles, and Germans. These groups mostly live in the city center and western neighborhoods. Many of them moved to Samarkand at the end of the 19th century, especially during the Soviet Era. Most of them speak Russian.

In the extreme west and southwest of Samarkand, there is a group of Central Asian Arabs who mostly speak Uzbek. Only a small number of older people speak Central Asian Arabic. In the eastern part of Samarkand, there was once a large Jewish community known as Bukharian Jews. However, starting in the 1970s, many Jews left Uzbekistan for countries like Israel, the United States, Canada, Australia, and Europe. Today, only a few Jewish families remain in Samarkand.

In the eastern part of Samarkand, there are also several neighborhoods where groups of Central Asian "Gypsies" (such as Lyuli, Djugi, Parya, and others) live. These groups arrived in Samarkand centuries ago from what are now India and Pakistan. They mainly speak a dialect of the Tajik language, as well as their own languages, including Parya.

The official language in Samarkand, like the rest of Uzbekistan, is Uzbek. Uzbek is a Turkic language and is the native language of Uzbeks, Turkmens, Samarkandian Iranians, and most Samarkandian Arabs.

In practice, Russian is the second most commonly used language in Samarkand. About 5% of signs and inscriptions in the city are in Russian. Many Russians, Belarusians, Poles, Germans, Koreans, most Ukrainians, most Armenians, Greeks, some Tatars, and some Azerbaijanis in Samarkand speak Russian. Several Russian-language newspapers are published in Samarkand, with the most popular being Samarkandskiy vestnik (The Samarkand Herald). The local TV channel STV also broadcasts some programs in Russian.

In practice, the most common native language in Samarkand is Tajik, which is a dialect of the Persian language. Samarkand was an important city in the development of the Persian language. Many famous Persian poets and writers lived in or visited Samarkand throughout history, including Abulqasem Ferdowsi, Omar Khayyam, Abdurahman Jami, Abu Abdullah Rudaki, Suzani Samarqandi, and Kamal Khujandi.

Although the official position is that Uzbek is the most common language in Samarkand, some data suggest that only about 30% of residents speak it as their first language. For the other 70%, Tajik is their first language, with Uzbek as the second language and Russian as the third. However, no population census has been conducted in Uzbekistan since 1989, so there are no exact numbers. Despite this, Tajik is not an official or regional language in Samarkand. Nevertheless, Samarkand State University offers courses in Tajik through ten faculties, and the Tajik Language and Literature Department has more than 170 students. One newspaper in Samarkand is published in Tajik using the Cyrillic alphabet: Ovozi Samarqand (Voice of Samarkand). Local TV channels STV and "Samarkand" also broadcast some programs in Tajik, as does one regional radio station. In 2022, a quarterly literary magazine in Tajik, Durdonai Sharq, was launched in Samarkand.

In addition to Uzbek, Tajik, and Russian, other native languages spoken in Samarkand include Ukrainian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Tatar, Crimean Tatar, Arabic (spoken by a very small number of Samarkandian Arabs), and others.

Modern Samarkand is a lively city. In 2019, the city hosted its first Samarkand Half Marathon. In 2022, the event also included a full marathon for the first time.

Religion

Islam came to Samarkand in the 8th century during an Arab invasion of Central Asia. Before this, most people in Samarkand were Zoroastrians, and many Nestorians and Buddhists also lived there. After this time, during the rule of many Muslim leaders, many mosques, religious schools, minarets, shrines, and tombs were built in the city. Many of these buildings still exist today. For example, the Shrine of Imam Bukhari, a scholar who wrote the Sahih al-Bukhari, a highly respected collection of Islamic teachings, is located in Samarkand. Another important site is the Shrine of Imam Maturidi, the founder of Maturidism, and the Mausoleum of the Prophet Daniel, who is honored in Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.

Most people in Samarkand are Muslim, mainly Sunni (mostly Hanafi) and Sufi. About 80–85% of Muslims in the city are Sunni, including most Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Arab residents. The most well-known Islamic religious families in Samarkand are descendants of Sufi leaders like Khodja Akhror Wali and Makhdumi A’zam, as well as Sayyid Ata and Mirakoni Khojas. Policies by President Shavkat Mirziyoyev allowed more freedom for religious practices. Since 2018, more women in Samarkand have started wearing the hijab.

Important religious sites in Samarkand include:
– Imam Bukhari Shrine
– Imam Maturidi Shrine
– Ruhabad Mausoleum
– Nuriddin Basir Shrine
– Khoja Daniyar Mausoleum

The Samarqand Vilayat is one of two regions in Uzbekistan (along with Bukhara Vilayat) with many Shiites. The population of Samarkand Vilayat is over 3,720,000 people (2019). While exact numbers of Shiites in Samarkand are not known, the city has several Shiite mosques and schools. The largest are the Punjabi Mosque, Punjabi Madrassah, and the Mausoleum of Mourad Avliya. Shiites in Samarkand celebrate events like Ashura and other important dates.

Most Shiites in Samarkand are Samarkandian Iranians, who call themselves Irani. Their ancestors arrived in Samarkand in the 18th century, some seeking better lives, others brought as slaves, and others serving as soldiers. Many came from cities in Iran like Khorasan, Mashhad, and Nishapur. Shiites in Samarkand also include Azerbaijanis, as well as smaller numbers of Tajiks and Uzbeks.

There are no official numbers for Shiites in Uzbekistan, but estimates suggest "several hundred thousand." In 2007–2008, a US ambassador met with Sunni and Shiite religious leaders in Uzbekistan. A Shiite imam in Bukhara claimed about 300,000 Shiites live in Bukhara Vilayat and 1 million in Samarkand Vilayat. The ambassador questioned these numbers, noting that religious and ethnic data in Uzbekistan are considered sensitive due to the risk of conflict. Religious leaders in Bukhara and Samarkand emphasized that traditional Islam, especially Sufism and Sunnism, is tolerant of other faiths.

Important Shiite sites in Samarkand include:
– Panjab Shia Mosque
– Panjab Shia Madrasa
– Murad Avliya Shrine

Christianity arrived in Samarkand when it was part of Sogdiana, long before Islam came to Central Asia. At that time, Samarkand was a center of Nestorian Christianity. Most people were Zoroastrians, but Samarkand was a place where many religions coexisted because it was a hub for trade between China, Persia, and Europe. Under the Arab rulers, Zoroastrians and Nestorians were persecuted, and many fled or converted to Islam. Some Nestorian temples were built in Samarkand, but they no longer exist. Their remains were found by archaeologists near the ancient site of Afrasiyab and around Samarkand.

Between 1329 and

Landmarks

Silk Road Samarkand is a modern complex that opened in early 2022 in eastern Samarkand. The complex covers 260 hectares and includes high-quality business and medical hotels, restaurants, recreational areas, park spaces, a cultural exhibit, and a large hall for international events.

Within the Silk Road Samarkand complex is the Eternal City, a site that covers 17 hectares. This area is designed to copy the look and feel of the ancient city, based on the history and traditions of Uzbekistan. The narrow streets feature shops run by artists, artisans, and craftsmen. The buildings in the Eternal City were inspired by real homes and squares described in old books. Visitors can experience a scene from a traditional oriental story, with features such as turquoise domes, colorful mosaics on palace walls, and tall minarets that reach high into the sky.

Guests of the Eternal City can enjoy traditional food from different regions and time periods of Uzbekistan. They can also watch authentic street performances. The Eternal City displays a mix of Parthian, Hellenistic, and Islamic cultural influences, helping visitors imagine the rich history of the past. The project was created by Bobur Ismoilov, a well-known modern artist.

Architecture

Timur began building the Bibi-Khanym mosque after his military campaign in India between 1398 and 1399. The mosque originally had about 450 marble columns, which were moved there and placed with the help of 95 elephants that Timur brought from Hindustan. Indian artisans and stonemasons designed the mosque’s dome, giving it a unique look compared to other buildings. An earthquake in 1897 destroyed the columns, and they were not completely rebuilt during later repairs.

The most famous landmark in Samarkand is the Gur-i Amir mausoleum. This building shows the influence of many cultures, including Islamic traditions. Even though the Mongols damaged much of Samarkand’s older Islamic buildings before Timur’s time, Timur helped restore and recreate these architectural styles. The design of the Gur-i Amir, including its exact measurements, shows the Islamic love for geometry. The entrance has Arabic writing and inscriptions, which are common in Islamic buildings. Inside, the walls are covered with colorful tiles that form religious words like "Muhammad" and "Allah." These tiles were made using an Iranian method where each piece is cut, colored, and placed individually.

The walls of the Gur-i Amir have floral and plant patterns, which represent gardens. In Islam, gardens symbolize paradise, and these designs were often used on tombs. Samarkand had two large gardens, the New Garden and the Garden of Heart’s Delight, which were popular places for guests and visitors. In 1218, a friend of Genghis Khan named Yelü Chucai wrote that Samarkand was the most beautiful city because it had many gardens. Every home had a garden, and the gardens were well-designed with canals, fountains, and ponds. The landscape included willow and cypress trees, as well as peach and plum trees. Persian carpets with floral designs have also been found in some Timurid buildings.

Traditional Islamic architecture is visible in the homes of Uzbek people, which are made of mud bricks and built around central courtyards with gardens. Many of these homes have painted wooden ceilings and walls. In contrast, homes in the western part of the city are mostly European-style buildings built in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Turko-Mongol influences are also seen in Samarkand’s architecture. The melon-shaped domes of the mausoleums may have been inspired by yurts or gers, which were traditional Mongol tents used to display the bodies of the dead before burial. Timur built his tents using stronger materials like bricks and wood, but their purpose remained the same. The room where Timur’s body was placed had "tugs," which were poles with horse or yak tail hairs tied in a circle. These banners were part of an ancient Turkic tradition of offering horses, which were valuable, to honor the dead. Tugs were also used as standards by many nomadic groups, including the Ottoman Turks.

The colors of buildings in Samarkand also have special meanings. Blue is the most common color in the city’s architecture, and Timur used it to represent many ideas. For example, the blue colors in the Gur-i Amir were associated with mourning, as blue was a color of sadness in Central Asia during that time. Blue was also believed to protect against the "evil eye," which is why many doors in the city are painted blue. Blue also symbolized water, a rare resource in the Middle East and Central Asia, and blue walls showed the city’s wealth.

Gold is also common in Samarkand. Timur’s interest in vaulting led to the use of a lot of gold in the Gur-i Amir and in the city’s buildings. Gold fabric was used in decorations and clothing. The Mongols were interested in Chinese and Persian-style golden silk textiles, including a type called nasij made in Iran and Transoxiana. Mongol leaders, like Ögedei Khan, built textile workshops in their cities to make gold fabrics themselves.

The suburbs of Samarkand include: Gulyakandoz, Superfosfatnyy, Bukharishlak, Ulugbek, Ravanak, Kattakishlak, Registan, Zebiniso, Kaftarkhona, Uzbankinty.

Transport

Samarkand has a well-developed public-transport system. Since the Soviet Era and continuing today, municipal buses and taxis (GAZ-21, GAZ-24, GAZ-3102, VAZ-2101, VAZ-2106, and VAZ-2107) have been used in Samarkand. Buses, mainly from SamAuto and Isuzu, are the most common and popular way to travel in the city. Taxis, mostly Chevrolets and Daewoo sedans, are usually yellow. Since 2017, several tram lines in Samarkand have operated, mostly using Vario LF.S Czech trams. From the Soviet Era until 2005, trolleybuses were also used in Samarkand. Additionally, Samarkand has "Marshrutka" minibuses, which are Daewoo Damas and GAZelle models.

• Many yellow taxis are visible on Samarkand’s streets.
• Taxis and trams can be seen on Rudaki Street in Samarkand.
• Trams are a common sight in Samarkand.

Before 1950, the main forms of transport in Samarkand were horse-drawn carriages and "arabas" pulled by donkeys. However, the city had a steam tram from 1924 to 1930, and more modern trams operated from 1947 to 1973.

In the northern part of the city is Samarkand International Airport, which was built in the 1930s under the Soviet government. As of spring 2019, the airport offers flights to Tashkent, Nukus, Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Kazan, Istanbul, and Dushanbe. Charter flights to other cities are also available.

Modern Samarkand is a key rail junction in Uzbekistan, with all major east-west railway routes passing through the city. The most important route is the Tashkent–Kungrad line. High-speed trains connect Tashkent, Samarkand, and Bukhara. Samarkand also has international railway links, including routes from Saratov, Moscow, and Astana.

• Samarkand railway station is an important transportation hub.
• The Afrasiyab (Talgo 250) high-speed train operates at Samarkand railway station.

Between 1879 and 1891, the Russian Empire built the Trans-Caspian Railway to support its expansion into Central Asia. The railway began in Krasnovodsk (now Turkmenbashi) on the Caspian Sea coast and originally ended in Samarkand, where the station first opened in May 1888. A decade later, the railway was extended eastward to Tashkent and Andijan, and its name was changed to Central Asian Railways. Despite this change, Samarkand remained one of the largest and most important railway stations in the Uzbek SSR and Soviet Central Asia.

In literature

The frame story of One Thousand and One Nights includes a Sasanian king who sends his brother, Shah Zaman, to rule Samarkand.

James Elroy Flecker, a poet, wrote the poem The Golden Journey to Samarkand in 1913. This poem was part of his play, Hassan (The Story of Hassan of Baghdad and How He Came to Make the Golden Journey to Samarkand). The play is a five-act drama written in prose with some verse sections. It follows Hassan, a young man from Baghdad, as he travels to Samarkand. During his journey, he faces challenges such as bandits, difficult landscapes, and political problems.

Samarkand (French: Samarcande), written by Amin Maalouf, a French-Lebanese author, is a historical fiction novel from 1988. It focuses on the 11th-century Persian poet Omar Khayyám and his collection of poems, the Rubaiyat.

In 2002, Nobel Prize winner Wole Soyinka released a poetry collection titled Samarkand and Other Markets I Have Known.

English writer Jonathan Stroud published a book called The Amulet of Samarkand in 2003. The book only mentions Samarkand by name and does not include other references to the city.

The city of Samarkand is known for an Uzbek story titled "The Rendezvous at Samarkand." This tale was told by Farid Al-Din Attar, a 12th-century Persian storyteller and mystic. The story takes place in a legendary Baghdad ruled by a powerful caliph. A young, healthy vizier, who seems to have a full life ahead, visits the city market in secret. There, he meets a skeletal woman who turns to face him. Recognizing her as death, the vizier pleads with the caliph to let him flee Baghdad, believing he can escape death by traveling to Samarkand, a distant desert city on the borders of Asia and the Middle East. The caliph agrees and asks where the vizier plans to go. The vizier replies that he is heading to Samarkand. The caliph then visits the market and confronts death directly. Death explains that she saw the vizier in Baghdad but must take him in Samarkand that night. This story shows that death is unavoidable, no matter where a person goes.

This tale inspired Agatha Christie to name her novel Appointment with Death.

In Theodore Judson’s 2004 novel Fitzpatrick’s War, the main character tries to make Samarkand (which he renames "Neapolis") the capital of a global empire. He lives there until he is assassinated.

The city of Samarkand is also mentioned in the book World of Watches and the movie Day Watch (2006).

Notable people

• Bakhtiyor Fazilov is a businessman.
• Takhmina Ikromova is a rhythmic gymnast from Uzbekistan.
• Igor Sarukhanov is a Russian pop musician, composer, and artist of Armenian descent.

General and cited references

• Azim Malikov, "Cult of saints and shrines in the Samarqand province of Uzbekistan." International Journal of Modern Anthropology, Issue 4, 2010, pages 116–123.
• Azim Malikov, "The politics of memory in Samarkand in post-Soviet period." International Journal of Modern Anthropology, Volume 2, Issue 11, 2018, pages 127–145.
• Azim Malikov, "Sacred lineages of Samarqand: history and identity." Anthropology of the Middle East, Volume 15, Issue 1, Summer 2020, pages 34–49.
• Alexander Morrison, Russian Rule in Samarkand 1868–1910: A Comparison with British India (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008) (Oxford Historical Monographs).