In garden design, a Persian garden, also known as an Iranian garden (Persian: باغ ایرانی), is a type of landscape garden that developed during the Achaemenid Empire. Nine historical gardens in Iran have been inscribed by UNESCO as part of the World Heritage Sites under the name "The Persian Garden" since 2011.

Concept and etymology

From the time of the Achaemenid Empire, the idea of an earthly paradise spread through Persian writings and examples to other cultures, including the Hellenistic gardens of the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemies in Alexandria.

The Avestan word pairidaēza, meaning "walled-around" (a walled garden), was borrowed into Elamite (partetaš) and Akkadian. Later, it became the Ancient Greek word παράδεισος (parádeisos), which was then translated into Latin as paradīsus. This term entered European languages, such as French (paradis), German (Paradies), and English (paradise). In the Achaemenid Empire, the word was also used to describe places where work was done, like plantations with orchards, tree farms, and areas for collecting bitumen or mining. It also described the Elamite tradition of creating a sacred area, called husa, around a royal tomb where people honored the deceased king.

As the word suggests, these gardens were enclosed spaces. They provided a place for relaxation, both for spiritual purposes and for leisure, and were seen as a paradise on earth. The Common Iranian word for "enclosed space" was pari-daiza (Avestan pairi-daēza). This term was later used to describe the Garden of Eden, a paradise on earth.

Gardens could be designed in a formal way, with a focus on structure, or in a more natural, casual style. These designs followed simple rules to make the gardens as useful and meaningful as possible.

History

Persian gardens may have started as early as 4000 BCE, but the tradition is clearly linked to the Achaemenid dynasty around the 6th century BCE. Decorated pottery from that time shows the typical cross-shaped layout of Persian gardens. The outline of Pasargadae, built around 500 BCE, is still visible today. Classical Iranians were known by the Greeks as the "great gardeners" of ancient times. Cyrus II, also called Cyrus the Younger, is said to have told the Spartan commander Lysander that he gardened daily when not on military campaigns. He also designed the park at Sardis, which he called his "paradise" (a Greek version of the Old Persian word for garden).

During the rule of the Sasanian Empire, influenced by Zoroastrianism, water became more important in art. This change appeared in garden design, with more fountains and ponds being included.

During the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, the beauty of gardens became more important than their practical uses. Rules for garden design became more significant. An example is the chahār bāgh, a garden style that tries to copy the idea of a Garden of Eden, with four rivers and four sections representing the world. Sometimes, one side of the garden is longer than the other, and water channels run through each section, connecting to a central pool.

The Mongol invasion of Persia in the 13th century led to a focus on highly decorated structures in gardens. Examples include plants like tree peonies and chrysanthemums. The Mongols also spread the Persian garden tradition to other parts of their empire, including India.

The Mughal emperor Babur brought Persian garden designs to India, trying to recreate the cool, refreshing feel of his homeland in the Ferghana Valley. He built Persian-style gardens in cities like Samarkand and Herat. Babur loved gardening and personally designed and oversaw at least ten gardens in his capital, Kabul, such as the Bagh-e Babur, where he planted pomegranate, cherry, and orange trees. Though his empire expanded to northern India, he disliked the hot, dry plains there. He was buried in Kabul at Bagh-e Babur by his wife in 1544.

The Aram Bagh in Agra was the first Persian garden Babur created in India. Mughal gardens have four main features, symbolizing four important elements for the afterlife: shade, fruit, fragrance, and flowing water. This design was used in many Persian gardens across the Indian subcontinent, such as the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, the Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, and the gardens of the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal gardens reflect the Persian idea of an ideal paradise garden, with irrigation channels and canals from the Yamuna River. These gardens were recently restored by Indian authorities after years of pollution damaged the trees that provided shade and fruit.

The Safavid dynasty (17th to 18th century) created grand and complex garden layouts that became an important part of palace designs. Later, European garden styles, especially those from France, and to a lesser extent from Russia and the United Kingdom, influenced Persian gardens. These influences changed how water was used and which plants were chosen for garden beds.

Traditional Persian garden styles are still used in modern Iranian gardens. They also appear in historic sites, museums, and in the homes of wealthy people.

Elements of the Persian garden

Sunlight and how it affects a garden were important in the design of Persian gardens. Architects carefully chose textures and shapes to use the light effectively.

Iran's hot, dry climate makes shade necessary in gardens. Without shade, gardens would be too uncomfortable to use. Plants like trees and trellises provide natural shade, while structures such as pavilions and walls help block the sun.

The heat also makes water a key part of garden design and care. Water may need to be brought in through a system called a qanat, which is a tunnel that carries water from an underground water source. Structures similar to wells connect to the qanat to allow water to be drawn up. Another method uses a wheel system powered by animals to bring water to the surface. These systems also help move water through garden designs, like those found in the chahar bāgh style. Trees were often planted in ditches called juy, which helped keep water from evaporating and allowed it to reach the tree roots quickly.

The Persian garden style often connects indoor and outdoor spaces by linking a garden to an inner courtyard. Designers use features like vaulted arches to create a smooth transition between the outside garden and the inside area.

Descriptions

A description of a Persian garden from around 400 BCE is found in a book called Oeconomicus by Xenophon. In this book, the character Socrates tells a story about a visit by the Spartan general Lysander to the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger. During the visit, Cyrus showed Lysander his "paradise at Sardis." Lysander was amazed by the beauty of the garden, including the trees planted in even rows, the straight lines of the branches, the perfect symmetry of the layout, and the pleasant scents in the air.

The earliest detailed descriptions and drawings of Persian gardens were made by travelers from the West who visited Iran. These travelers included Ibn Battuta in the 1300s, Ruy González de Clavijo in the 1400s, and Engelbert Kaempfer in the 1600s. Battuta and Clavijo only briefly mentioned gardens and did not describe their designs. However, Kaempfer created detailed drawings of the gardens and made engravings of them after returning to Europe. These engravings show charbagh-type gardens, which had walls around them, rectangular pools, canals, pavilions, and many plants. Examples of these gardens still exist today in places like Yazd (Dowlatabad) and Kashan (Fin Garden). The gardens that Kaempfer illustrated in Isfahan can also be identified.

Styles

There are six main types of Persian gardens. A table shows how each type is used and its style. Gardens can mix different styles and have areas with different uses.

Public gardens often follow a traditional Persian design that focuses on beauty rather than practical use. Man-made features, such as arches and pools (which may be used for bathing), are important. The ground is usually covered in gravel with flat stones. Plants are simple, such as a row of trees that also provide shade.

Private gardens often center around a pool and include structures. The pool is the main feature and adds moisture to the air. There are few plants because of limited water in cities.

Public formal gardens focus more on living elements, like plants, than on structures. Plants include trees, shrubs, flowers, and grass. Pools and gravel paths divide the lawn. Structures, like pavilions, are used to provide shade.

Private formal gardens are divided into four sections by water channels or paths. Wealthy people used these gardens for events, like hosting guests. These gardens balance structures with plants, which are often placed around a pool and path system.

Public parks, like other gardens, are casual spaces that emphasize plants. They have paths and seating but few structures. Their purpose is to help people relax and socialize.

Like parks, bāgh gardens highlight natural, green areas. They are private and often attached to homes, with lawns, trees, and ground plants. Water channels and paths are less noticeable and mainly serve practical purposes. These areas are used for family relaxation.

World Heritage Sites

• Pasargad Garden at Pasargadae, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 1372-001)
• Eram Garden in Shiraz, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 1372-002)
• Chehel Sotoun in Isfahan, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 1372-003)
• Fin Garden in Kashan, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 1372-004)
• Abbasabad Garden in Abbasabad, Mazandaran, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 1372-005)
• Shazdeh Garden in Mahan, Kerman province, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 1372-006)
• Dolatabad Garden in Yazd, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 1372-007)
• Pahlevanpour Garden, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 1372-008)
• Akbarieh Garden in South Khorasan province, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 1372-009)
• Taj Mahal in Agra, India (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 252)
• Humayun's Tomb in New Delhi, India (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 232bis)
• Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, Pakistan (UNESCO World Heritage Site number 171-002)