Pattadakal, also known as Raktapura, is a group of Hindu and Jain temples built between the 7th and 8th centuries in northern Karnataka, India. It is located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalkot district. This UNESCO World Heritage Site is 23 kilometers (14 miles) from Badami and about 9.7 kilometers (6 miles) from Aihole, both of which are important historical places with Chalukya-era monuments. The site is protected by Indian law and managed by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

UNESCO describes Pattadakal as a mix of architectural styles from northern and southern India, showing the height of eclectic art. The Hindu temples are mostly dedicated to Shiva, but they also include elements from Vaishnavism and Shaktism. The carvings on the Hindu temples show stories from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, and other Hindu texts like the Panchatantra and the Kirātārjunīya. The Jain temple is dedicated to a single Jina. The most detailed temples, with carvings that combine northern and southern styles, are the Papanatha and Virupaksha temples. The Virupaksha temple is still used for Hindu worship.

The Malaprabha River, a tributary of the Krishna River, flows through mountain valleys and plains in southern India. It begins in the western ghats region of Belagavi district and flows eastward. Just one kilometer (0.62 miles) before reaching Pattadakal, the river changes direction to flow north. According to Hindu tradition, a river that flows north is called Uttarvahini Ganga.

Location

The Pattadakal monuments are located in the Indian state of Karnataka, about 165 kilometers (103 miles) southeast of Belgaum, 265 kilometers (165 miles) northeast of Goa, 14 miles (23 kilometers) from Badami via Karnataka state highway SH14, and about 6 miles (9.7 kilometers) from Aihole. These monuments are found near sandstone mountains and the Malaprabha river valley. In total, there are more than 150 Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist monuments and archaeological discoveries from the 4th to 10th century CE. The site also includes prehistoric dolmens and cave paintings.

Nearby airports to Pattadakal:
• Sambra Belgaum Airport (IATA Code: IXG), located 3 hours to the west, has daily flights to Mumbai, Bangalore, and Chennai.
• Hubballi Airport is also 3 hours from Pattadakal. It has flights to Bengaluru, Mumbai, Chennai, Kochi, and Delhi.

Access to the site by train is possible through an Indian Railways service that stops at Badami on the Hubballi-Solapur railway line.

History

Pattadakal, also called "Stone of Coronation," was a holy place because the Malaprabha River turned north toward the Himalayas and Kailasha Mountain (uttara-vahini). Its name shows it was used by the Chalukya dynasty for coronation ceremonies, like that of Vinayaditya in the 7th century CE. Other names for the place included Kisuvolal ("valley of red soil"), Raktapura ("city of red"), and Pattada-Kisuvolal ("red soil valley for coronation"). The site is mentioned in writings by Srivijaya and named "Petirgal" by Ptolemy in his Geography, according to the Archaeological Survey of India.

The early rulers of the Chalukya dynasty from the 5th to 6th century were Vaishnavites, a group that worships Lord Vishnu. Later, they became Shaivaites, a group that worships Lord Shiva. Because of this change, temples near Pattadakal were built to honor Lord Shiva.

Pattadakal, along with nearby Aihole and Badami, became a major center for culture and religion, where new ideas in architecture were tested. The Gupta Empire's rule in the 5th century brought political stability, making Aihole a hub for learning. Over the next two centuries, architectural experiments spread to Badami. By the 7th century, Pattadakal became a place where ideas from northern and southern India blended. During this time, the Chalukya Empire built many temples in the Aihole-Badami-Pattadakal region.

After the Chalukya Empire fell, the area was taken over by the Rashtrakuta kingdom, who ruled until the 10th century. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the region was controlled by the Late Chalukyas (Western Chalukya Empire, Chalukyas of Kalyani), a group that came from the Early Chalukya Empire. Even though the area was not a capital, records like inscriptions and architecture show that Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist temples and monasteries were built in Pattadakal from the 9th to 12th centuries. Historian George Michell believes this was due to the area's large population and growing wealth.

In the 14th century, Pattadakal, the Malaprabha Valley, and much of the Deccan region were attacked by armies from the Delhi Sultanate, causing great damage. This ended with the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, which built forts to protect monuments, as seen in Badami's fort. Pattadakal was part of a border area where Vijayanagara fought northern Sultanates. After Vijayanagara fell in 1565, Pattadakal was taken over by the Bijapur Sultanate, ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty. In the late 17th century, the Mughal Empire, under Aurangzeb, controlled Pattadakal from the Sultanate. After the Mughal Empire collapsed, Pattadakal came under the Maratha Empire. Later, Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan took control in the late 18th century but lost it when the British defeated Tipu and took over the region.

The monuments at Pattadakal show how early northern and southern styles of Hindu art interacted. Historian T. Richard Blurton notes that northern India's temple art history is unclear because the region was often attacked by Central Asian invaders, especially during Muslim invasions starting in the 11th century. These attacks destroyed many examples of temple art. The Pattadakal monuments built in the 7th and 8th centuries are among the earliest surviving examples of these early religious arts.

Prehistoric Monuments

Recent findings by archaeologist and prehistorian Prof. Ravi Korisettar, published by the National Institutes of Advanced Studies in India, show that Early Chalukyan artisans were not the first to build monuments in the Malaprabha Valley. At Bachinnagudda, a few kilometers west of Pattadakallu along the road to Badami, there is a rough-looking monument believed to date back to the Iron Age (about 1200 BCE–500 BCE). This monument, called a dolmen, is part of a group of structures known as megaliths, which were built across southern India during the Iron Age and Early Historic period.

Description

There are ten major temples at Pattadakal, nine of which are Hindu and one is Jain, along with many smaller shrines and plinths. Eight of the major temples are grouped closely together, one is about half a kilometer south of this group, and the tenth, a Jain temple, is about one kilometer west of the main group. The Hindu temples are connected by a walkway, while the Jain temple has a road leading to it.

The Pattadakal monuments combine two major Indian architectural styles: one from northern India (Rekha-Nagara-Prasada) and one from southern India (Dravida-Vimana). Four temples were built in the Chalukya Dravida style, four in the Nagara style from northern India, and one, the Papanatha temple, blends both styles. All nine Hindu temples are dedicated to Shiva and are located along the banks of the Malaprabha River. The oldest of these temples is the Sangameshwara Temple, built between 697 and 733 CE during the reign of King Vijayaditya Satyashraya. The largest temple, the Virupaksha Temple, was built between 740 and 745 CE.

The Jain temple, known locally as the Jain Narayana Temple, was likely built in the 9th century during the rule of King Krishna II of the Rashtrakutas. Its design is similar to the Kailasanatha Temple in Kanchipuram.

The temples were constructed using locally available sandstone. Some sculptures are made from polished black granite.

A small temple, the Kada Siddheshwara Temple, is dated by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to around the mid-7th century CE, but George Michell dates it to the early 8th century. The temple faces east and is built around a square garbha griha (sacred inner chamber). It contains a linga (symbol of Shiva) on a platform, surrounded by a mantapa (hall). Much of the temple has worn away or been damaged over time. The shikhara (spire) follows the northern Nagara style (Rekha-Nagara) and includes a sukanasa (projecting structure) on the east. The sukanasa has a damaged image of Nataraja (dancing Shiva) with Parvati nearby.

The outer walls of the Kada Siddheshwara sanctum show images of Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati) on the north, Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu) on the west, and Lakulisha on the south. At the entrance, a lintel displays Shiva and Parvati flanked by Brahma and Vishnu. The steps at the entrance are decorated with images of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, along with their attendants.

Another small temple, the Jambulingeshwara Temple, also called the Jambulinga Temple, is estimated by ASI to be completed between the mid-7th and early 8th century. The temple is built around a square garbha griha, with intricate devakoshtha (niches with decorated frames) on its outer walls. These niches contain images of Vishnu on the north, Surya (Sun god) on the west, and Lakulisha on the south. The temple features a sukanasa projecting from the shikhara over the mandapa (hall). It faces east and includes a Nandi (image of Shiva’s bull) on a raised platform, though the platform is now in ruins. A better-preserved image of Nataraja with Parvati and Nandi is located on the frontal arch.

The Jambulingeshwara Temple follows the northern Rekha-Nagara style, with a curving profile of diminishing squares. The amalaka (top stone) and kalasha (finial) are damaged. The entrance to the mandapa is decorated with three shakhas (columns) with purnakumbhas (bell-shaped capitals) below. A swan-themed frieze covers the passageway, though the carvings are faint.

The Galaganatha Temple is located east of the Jambulingeshwara Temple. ASI dates it to the mid-8th century, while Michell suggests it was built in the late 7th century. The temple follows the northern Rekha-Nagara style and includes a linga (Shiva symbol) and a vestibule (small inner hall) within the sanctum. A seated Nandi faces the sanctum outside the temple.

The sanctum has a covered pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path), showing that the tradition of walking around the temple was established by the 7th to 8th century. The temple includes a sabha mantapa (community hall) for ceremonies and a mukha mantapa (front hall), of which only the foundation remains. The entrance to the mantapa is flanked by images of Ganga and Yamuna.

The Galaganatha Temple is mostly in ruins, except for the southern part, which has a carved slab showing an eight-armed Shiva killing the demon Andhaka, wearing a garland of skulls as a yajnopavita (sacred thread). According to Michell, the Galaganatha Temple closely resembles the Svarga Brahma Temple in Alampur, Andhra Pradesh, which dates to 689 CE. Both sites were part of the Badami Chalukya kingdom, suggesting an exchange of ideas. The eastern part of the temple’s basement includes friezes depicting Panchatantra fables, such as a mischievous monkey and a two-headed bird.

The Chandrashekhara Temple is a small, east-facing temple without a tower. It is located on the south side of the Galaganatha Temple. ASI dates it to the mid-8th century, while Michell estimates it to be from the late 9th or early 10th century. The temple has a garbha griha with a Shiva linga and a closed hall. A Nandi sits on

Significance

According to art historian Cathleen Cummings, the monuments at Pattadakal are an important example of religion, society, and culture in the Deccan region, especially Hindu and Jain traditions. They show how Hindu rulers in 8th-century India expressed their beliefs and values. She explains that the artists used images to show the ideas of Dharma (duty, virtue, and righteousness) and Moksha (liberation) from Hindu teachings, especially in Pashupata Shaivism. She also says that the meaning of these monuments is not only in the individual images but also in how they are placed and arranged, which reflects the historical differences in Hindu traditions between the life of a family member and the life of a monk who lives simply.

The ideas of Dharma, especially raja-dharma (the duty and power of a king, as shown by the character Rama), and Moksha are found in the temples at Pattadakal. Scenes from the Ramayana, which tell the story of Rama, appear in carvings on the temples, showing raja-dharma. Images of Lakulisha, Nataraja, Yoga, and ascetics (people who live a simple life) show Moksha. Other common images at Pattadakal include those of Purusha (the soul or masculine) and Prakriti (matter or feminine).

The temples at Pattadakal represent the Chalukya rulers' interest in combining different ideas and trying new things, which led to a mix of Northern and Southern Indian architectural styles. This is clear when comparing Pattadakal with Aihole and Badami. Aihole, from the 5th century, was where early ideas about combining styles began. These ideas were improved in Badami during the 6th and 7th centuries. As UNESCO describes, the temples show "the highest point of a style that blended different Indian architectural forms into a peaceful and unified design" during the 7th and 8th centuries.

At Pattadakal, one sculpture shows a long-necked lute, similar to a sitar, from the 10th century. The site also has carvings of more common musical instruments, but the lute suggests that musicians created new designs. Another example is the 7th-century stick zithers (stringed instruments with sticks) carved into the bas-reliefs at Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu.