Masada (Hebrew: מְצָדָה məṣādā, "fortress"; Arabic: جبل مسعدة jabal musayda, "Mount Museida") is a mountain-top fortress in the Judaean Desert, located near the western edge of the Dead Sea in southeastern Israel. The fortress was built in the first century BC and sits on a natural plateau that rises more than 400 meters (1,300 feet) above the surrounding land, about 20 kilometers (12 miles) east of the modern city of Arad.

The most important remains at Masada date to the time of Herod the Great, who ruled Judea from about 37 to 4 BC. He built Masada into a strong desert refuge early in his reign. Herod enclosed the top of the mountain with a wall made of rooms and towers, and he built storerooms, an advanced water system, bathhouses, and two large palaces. One palace was on the western side, and the other was built across three terraces on the northern cliff. These palaces are among the best examples of Herodian architecture.

Masada is most famous for its role during the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 AD), when it became the last place held by Jewish rebels after the fall of Jerusalem. A group called the Sicarii, led by Eleazar ben Ya'ir, defended Masada against the Roman Tenth Legion, led by Lucius Flavius Silva. The Romans built a wall around the fortress and a large ramp to attack it. According to the historian Josephus, when the walls were broken in 73 or 74 AD, the Romans found that nearly 1,000 people had died by choosing to commit mass suicide. This claim is still debated by historians. In modern times, the story of Masada has been seen as a symbol of bravery and has influenced the development of early Israeli national identity.

In the 1960s, archaeologist Yigael Yadin uncovered well-preserved remains at Masada, including Herod’s palaces, storerooms with food remains, ritual baths, a synagogue, Jewish scrolls, small bird-shaped niches for storing ashes (called columbaria), and pottery with names written on them. One piece had the name "ben Ya'ir," possibly connected to the defenders’ final days. Nearby, the remains of the Roman siege works and bases are still visible and represent some of the best-preserved examples of Roman military engineering. Today, Masada is a UNESCO World Heritage Site because of these siege remains and is one of Israel’s most visited tourist attractions, with about 750,000 visitors each year.

Geography

The cliff of Masada is, geologically speaking, a horst. The plateau ends suddenly in steep cliffs that drop about 400 meters (1,300 feet) to the east and about 90 meters (300 feet) to the west, making the natural paths to the fortress very hard to travel. The top of the plateau is flat and shaped like a rhomboid, measuring about 550 meters (1,800 feet) by 270 meters (890 feet). Herod built a wall 4 meters (13 feet) high around the plateau, which is 1,300 meters (4,300 feet) long, and added many towers for support. Inside the fortress were storehouses, barracks, an armory, a palace, and a series of cisterns that could hold about 40,000 cubic meters (1.4 million cubic feet) of water. These cisterns were filled with rainwater collected from runoff, and the water from one day’s rain could allegedly last over 1,000 people for 2 to 3 years. Three narrow, winding paths led upward from below to the fortress’s gates.

History

Most information about Masada comes from Josephus, a Jewish-Roman historian who lived in the first century. Masada is also mentioned in writings found in the Judean Desert.

Josephus wrote that the site was first made strong with walls by Alexander Jannaeus, a Hasmonean ruler, in the first century BC. However, no buildings from the Hasmonean period have been found during archaeological digs.

Josephus also wrote that Herod the Great took control of Masada during a power struggle after his father, Antipater, died in 43 BC. The site survived an attack by Antigonus II Mattathias, the last Hasmonean king, who was supported by the Parthians.

According to Josephus, between 37 and 31 BC, Herod the Great built a large fortress on Masada’s plateau as a safe place during times of rebellion. He also constructed two palaces and stored enough food to last a long time.

In 66 CE, a group of Jewish rebels called the Sicarii used a trick to defeat the Roman soldiers at Masada. Josephus described the Sicarii as an extreme Jewish group that opposed the Zealots, who led the main part of the rebellion. The Sicarii attacked nearby Jewish villages, including Ein Gedi, where they killed 700 women and children.

In 73 AD, the Roman governor of Judaea, Lucius Flavius Silva, led the Roman legion X Fretensis in attacking Masada. Some sources say the siege happened in 73 or 74 CE. The Romans built a wall around Masada and then created a ramp against the western side of the plateau. Studies in the 1990s confirmed that the ramp was mostly made of natural rock.

The ramp was finished in the spring of 73 CE, after about two to three months of siege. On April 16, the Romans used a battering ram to break through the fortress wall. The Roman army included the X Legion, supporting soldiers, and Jewish prisoners, totaling about 15,000 people, of whom around 8,000 to 9,000 were fighting soldiers.

A large siege tower with a battering ram was moved up the ramp. Josephus wrote that when the Romans entered Masada, they found the defenders had burned all the buildings except the food storerooms. The defenders had either killed themselves or each other, totaling 960 people. Josephus described two speeches given by the Sicarii leader to encourage his followers to commit suicide. Only two women and five children survived.

Josephus likely based his account on reports from Roman officers that were available to him.

There are differences between what Josephus wrote and what archaeologists have found. Josephus mentioned only one of the two palaces discovered, described only one fire, though many buildings show signs of fire damage, and claimed 960 people died, though only about 28 bodies have been found. However, some details from Josephus are correct, such as the description of baths, colorful stone floors, and rock pits used for storing water. Excavations uncovered some mosaic floors that match these descriptions.

Masada was last used during the Byzantine period, when a small church was built at the site. The church was part of a religious settlement linked to a monastery called Marda, mentioned in religious writings. Researchers agree this connection is correct. The word "Marda" means "fortress" in Aramaic, similar to the Greek name for another desert monastery, Kastellion, mentioned in the life story of St. Sabbas. However, "Marda" is used as a proper name only for the monastery at Masada, as noted in the life story of St. Euthymius.

Archaeology

A cave called Yoram Cave, located on a steep southern cliff face 100 meters below a plateau, was discovered to contain many plant remains, including 6,000-year-old barley seeds. These seeds were so well preserved that scientists could read their genetic code, or genome. This is the first time a genome from a Chalcolithic plant has been sequenced, and it is the oldest plant genome sequenced so far. The findings showed that barley was first domesticated about 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent, but the earliest domestication likely happened further north in the Upper Jordan Valley in northern Israel.

The barley seeds found in Yoram Cave were quite different from wild barley, showing that people had already advanced the process of domestication. These seeds were also very similar to types of barley still grown in the region, suggesting that the characteristics of this barley have remained largely unchanged over time. Because the cave is difficult to reach, with its entrance 4 meters above a narrow path, scientists believe it may have been used as a temporary shelter by people fleeing a disaster during the Chalcolithic period.

The site of Masada was first identified in 1838 by Americans Edward Robinson and Eli Smith. In 1842, American missionary Samuel W. Wolcott and English painter W. Tipping were the first modern people to climb Masada. In the 1930s and 1940s, Shmarya Guttman visited the site multiple times and conducted an initial excavation in 1959. Between 1963 and 1965, Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin led a major excavation of Masada.

Because Masada is far from human settlements and has a dry climate, the site remained largely untouched for about 2,000 years. Many ancient buildings, including Herod’s palaces, Roman-style bathhouses, a synagogue, storehouses, and the homes of Jewish rebels, have been restored from their remains. Water cisterns located two-thirds up the cliff collected water from nearby streams through a system of channels, allowing the rebels to store enough water for a long time.

The Roman attack ramp on the western side of Masada still stands and can be climbed. The Romans also built a wall around Masada and eight camps outside it. These Roman structures, especially the attack ramp, are among the best-preserved of their kind and were the reason Masada was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site. Yadin wrote a book about Masada in 1966 titled "Masada."

Inside the synagogue, an ostracon (a piece of pottery with writing) was found with the words "ma'aser cohen" (a tithe for the priest). Fragments of two scrolls, parts of Deuteronomy and Ezekiel, were discovered hidden in pits under the floor of a small room in the synagogue. Other fragments of Genesis, Leviticus, Psalms, Sirach, and the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice were also found.

In the area near the Northern Palace, 11 small ostraca were found, each with a single name. One name, "ben Ya'ir," might be short for Eleazar ben Ya'ir, the commander of the fortress. The other names may be those of men chosen to kill others and then themselves, as described by the historian Josephus.

The remains of up to 28 people were found at Masada, possibly 29 including a fetus. Twenty-five individuals were discovered in a cave near the southern wall, while two males and a female were found in the bathhouse of the Northern Palace. The ages of the males were estimated as either 40 and 20–22, 22 and 11–12, or between 16–18 years old based on dental remains. The female was estimated to be 17–18 years old. Only the woman’s hair, which had braids, was found, and no bones were present.

Forensic analysis showed the woman’s hair was shaved with a sharp tool while she was alive, a practice described in the Bible (Deuteronomy 21:10–12) and the 2nd-century BC Temple Scroll. The braids suggest she was married. Experts believe the remains may belong to Romans captured by the rebels.

In a southern cave at the base of the cliff, remains of 24 people were found. Yadin could not determine their ethnicity, but the rabbinical community believed they were Jewish defenders. These remains were reburied in a state ceremony in 1969. Textiles found with the remains were dated to the time of the revolt, and pig bones were present, which sometimes appear in Roman burials due to sacrifices. This suggests the remains may belong to non-Jewish Romans who lived on the site before or after the siege.

A 2,000-year-old Judean date palm seed discovered in the 1960s was successfully grown into a date plant called "Methuselah," named after the biblical figure who lived the longest. At the time, it was the oldest seed to germinate, a record later broken in 2012. As of February 2024, it remains the oldest germination from a seed.

Remains of a Byzantine church from the 5th and 6th centuries were found on the plateau. Yadin’s team found no architectural remains from the Hasmonean period, but many coins from Alexander Jannaeus were discovered. Some researchers think parts of the Western Palace and nearby buildings might be Hasmonean, but no evidence was found to confirm this.

According to Shaye Cohen, the archaeology of Masada shows that Josephus’s account of the siege is incomplete and inaccurate. Josephus described only one palace, but archaeology found two. His description of the northern palace has errors, and he exaggerated the height of walls and towers. The discovery of skeletons in a cave and signs of separate fires contradict his account.

Josephus wrote that the Roman siege of Masada from 73 to 74 CE ended with the mass suicide of 960 Sicarii rebels. However, archaeological evidence about this event is unclear, and some scholars reject Josephus’s story. Eric Cline believes Josephus may have retold a similar event from the Siege of Yodfat, where he and another soldier chose to surrender instead of killing each other.

Masada is an example of Herodian architecture and was the first site Herod the Great fortified after gaining control of his kingdom. The first of three building phases began in 35 BCE, during which the Western Palace, three smaller palaces, a storeroom, and army barracks were built. Three columbarium towers and a swimming pool at the southern end of the site were also completed during this phase.

The original center of the Western Palace was square and accessed through an open courtyard on the northwest corner of the building. This courtyard was the central room of the palace and led to a portico used as a reception area.

Modern tourism

Masada was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001. In 2007, the Masada Museum in Memory of Yigael Yadin opened at the site. The museum displays archaeological discoveries in a dramatic way. Many of the items shown were found by Yadin and his team from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem during the 1960s.

The archaeological site is located in Masada National Park. The park charges an entrance fee, even for hikers. There are two hiking paths, both very steep:

• The Snake Trail starts from the eastern side near the Masada Museum (reached via the Dead Sea Highway) and climbs about 301 meters (988 feet).
• The Roman Ramp trail is also steep but has less elevation gain. It is accessed from the western side of the mountain (via the Arad road by car).

Hikers often begin their journey one hour before sunrise, when the park opens, to avoid the heat during the day. In summer, temperatures can reach 43°C (109°F), and the trails are sometimes closed during the day because of the heat. Visitors are advised to bring water, as it is only available at the top of the mountain.

For a higher cost, visitors can ride a cable car (the Masada cableway, which opens at 8 a.m.) to the top of the plateau.

A visitors’ center and the museum are located at the base of the cable car.

During some summer nights, a light-and-sound show is held on the western side of the mountain. It can be reached by car from the Arad road or by walking down the mountain via the Roman Ramp path.

Legacy and symbolism

In the twentieth century, the story of the siege at Masada changed from being a little-known historical event into a key symbol of Israeli national identity. This legacy greatly influenced the modern Zionist story and inspired many adaptations in global popular culture and media.

The siege of Masada is often seen in modern Israel as "a symbol of Jewish heroism." The Masada story is based on historical accounts by Josephus, which describe the Sicarii as a group within the Zealots. Klara Palotai said, "Masada became a symbol for a heroic 'last stand' for the State of Israel and played a major role in helping Israel create its national identity."

To Israel, the story showed the bravery of the warriors at Masada, their strength in holding the site for nearly three years, and their decision to die rather than be enslaved by an empire. Masada became "the place where national heritage is celebrated," with military ceremonies held there. Palotai noted that Masada "developed a special connection with archaeology" because people from around the world have visited the site to find remains from the fortress and battle.

The story of Masada inspired the "Masada plan" created by the British during the Mandate era. The plan aimed to place fighters from the Palmach on Mount Carmel to stop Erwin Rommel’s expected attack in 1942. The plan was canceled after Rommel lost the battle of El Alamein.

The chief of staff of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Moshe Dayan, started a tradition of holding swearing-in ceremonies for soldiers who completed basic training on Masada. The ceremony ended with the phrase: "Masada shall not fall again." Soldiers climbed the Snake Path at night and were sworn in with torches lighting the area. These ceremonies now also take place at other important locations, such as the Armoured Corps Memorial at Latrun, the Western Wall, Ammunition Hill in Jerusalem, Akko Prison, and training bases.

• A miniseries about Masada was shown in 1981.
• Jewish American boxer Cletus Seldin wears a jacket with "Remember the Masada" written on the back.
• Masada was a location in episodes 9 and 10 of The Amazing Race Australia 1 (2011).
• In 2017, Jean Michel Jarre held an electronic music concert near Masada.
• Masada is the main setting in the fourth season of Preacher.
• "XK Masada" is the name of a special refuge in the story A Colder War.
• Masada is the main setting in the book The Dovekeepers and the two-part TV drama of the same name.
• Masada is the title of a song and album by Ivorian reggae singer Alpha Blondy.

Gallery

• The Northern Palace's lower terrace (#39 on plan)
• A stepped pool believed to be a Herodian swimming pool, possibly used as a mikveh (a special bath for religious rituals) by rebels (#17 on plan)
• A Byzantine church (#26 on plan)
• An aerial view showing Masada and the Snake Path from the northeast
• Masada's western Byzantine gate (#23 on plan)
• A Roman siege camp labeled F and part of the Roman circumvallation wall (a wall built to surround the area)
• A cable car, known as the Masada cableway, that travels downward from Masada