The Madeira evergreen forests are a type of forest region in southwestern Europe. This area includes the island group of Madeira and nearby islands, such as Desertas and Selvagens, in the Atlantic Ocean. A type of forest called laurel forest (Laurisilva) once covered these islands. Over many years, most of these forests were cut down. Today, the remaining forests in Madeira are protected.

Geography

The islands are a self-governing region of Portugal. They are located southwest of the Portuguese mainland in the Atlantic Ocean, 978 kilometers (608 miles) southwest of Lisbon and 560 kilometers (350 miles) west of Morocco.

Madeira is the largest and highest island, covering an area of 741 square kilometers (286 square miles). The island stretches about 57 kilometers (35 miles) from east to west and is 22 kilometers (14 miles) at its widest point. A line of mountains runs along the island’s length, and Pico Ruivo, the tallest peak, rises 1,861 meters (6,106 feet) above sea level. Porto Santo Island, located 43 kilometers (27 miles) northeast of Madeira, is the second-largest island, with an area of 42.2 square kilometers (16.3 square miles).

The Desertas Islands are a group of three narrow islands, about 25 kilometers (16 miles) southeast of Madeira, covering a total area of 14.2 square kilometers (5.5 square miles).

The Selvagens are a group of small islands, located 280 kilometers (170 miles) south of Madeira and 165 kilometers (103 miles) north of the Canary Islands. Together, they cover an area of 2.73 square kilometers (1.05 square miles).

The islands were formed by volcanic activity. Common rock types include basalt and volcanic ash, with some areas containing uplifted limestone from the ocean. Volcanic soil is generally rich and supports both native forests and farming on the two larger islands.

Madeira and Porto Santo are the only inhabited islands. The archipelago has a population of 289,000 (as of 2016), mostly on Madeira. Funchal, located on Madeira’s southern coast, is the islands’ largest city and main port.

Climate

The climate of Madeira is subtropical and influenced by the ocean. The average yearly temperature at sea level is between 15 and 20 °C. As elevation increases, the climate becomes cooler, and frost and snow often occur in winter on the island's highest areas. Average yearly rainfall ranges from 250 to 750 millimetres (9.8 to 29.5 in). The main winds come from the northeast, and rainfall is greater on the north side of the island. Mountain slopes are often covered in clouds and fog caused by the wind, which helps support cloud forests in the wettest regions.

Flora

Madeira has about 1,226 native species of vascular plants. Sixty-six of these plant species are found only in Madeira, including the genera Chamaemeles, Musschia, Parafestuca, and Sinapidendron. Some of the plants that are unique to Madeira include Polystichum drepanum, Armeria maderensis, Goodyera macrophylla, Viola paradoxa, Crambe fruticosa, Matthiola maderensis, Sinapidendron angustifolium, Saxifraga maderensis, Sorbus maderensis, Genista maderensis, Pericallis aurita, Phalaris maderensis, and Musschia wollastonii. Another 54 species are found only in Macaronesia. Over half of Madeira's plant species also grow in the Mediterranean Basin.

Before people settled on Madeira, laurel forests, called laurissilva, covered most of the island. Today, laurissilva covers about 16% of the island. It grows on the island’s wet north-facing slopes between 300 and 1,300 meters (980 and 4,270 feet) elevation, and on the south-facing slopes between 700 and 1,600 meters (2,300 and 5,200 feet) elevation.

Laurissilva forests are made up of evergreen trees with shiny leaves. Trees in the laurel family (Lauraceae) are common in these forests. Laurissilva is similar to ancient subtropical forests in the Mediterranean Basin before the climate there became colder and drier during ice ages. Evidence from ancient plant remains shows that laurissilva forests have existed on Madeira for at least 1.8 million years. The Canary Islands and Azores also have smaller areas of laurissilva.

There are two main types of laurissilva in Madeira. Moist laurisilva grows on north-facing slopes and canyons. The main trees here are Laurus novocanariensis, Ocotea foetens, Persea indica, and Clethra arborea. These trees often have mosses and lichens growing on them.

Dry laurisilva grows on south-facing slopes. The main trees here are Persea barbujana, Laurus novocanariensis, Picconia excelsa, Visnea mocanera, and Clethra arborea.

Other trees in laurissilva forests include Heberdenia excelsa, Laurus nobilis, Pittosporum coriaceum, and Rhamnus glandulosa. Large shrubs such as Ilex perado and Ilex canariensis also grow in these forests. The forest floor has shrubs, ferns, herbs, mosses, and liverworts. Some plants found here include the giant cranesbill (Geranium maderense), the Madeiran squill (Scilla madeirensis), and the endemic orchids Dactylorhiza foliosa and Goodyera macrophylla.

Mountain heathland grows on high ridges and mountains above the laurissilva. Common shrubs here include tree heath (Erica arborea), besom heath (Erica platycodon ssp. maderincola), and Madeira juniper (Juniperus cedrus).

Along the southern coast, low forests grow in coastal ravines up to 200 meters (660 feet) elevation. These forests are dominated by the endemic wild olive tree (Olea europaea subsp. cerasiformis) and shrubs such as Maytenus umbellata, Chamaemeles coriacea (a Madeiran endemic), Dracaena draco, and Asparagus scoparius. A secondary shrubland made up of Euphorbia piscatoria, Echium nervosum, and Globularia salicina grows in disturbed areas. Low forests dominated by marmolano (Sideroxylon mirmulano) occur along the northern shore. Olea forests also grow in pockets above the south shore from 200 to 300 meters (660 to 980 feet) elevation. Other coastal plant communities include low shrubland, perennial grassland, and annual grassland.

Fauna

The laurissilva forests of the island of Madeira have been recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International. About 295 bird species and subspecies have been found on the islands, and 42 of them breed there. Endemic bird species include the Trocaz pigeon (Columba trocaz), Zino's petrel (Pterodroma madeira), Desertas petrel (Pterodroma deserta), and Madeira firecrest (Regulus maderensis). The Madeira chaffinch (Fringilla madeirensis) is an endemic forest species related to the Eurasian chaffinch. Berthelot's pipit (Anthus bertheloti) and Atlantic canary (Serinus canaria) are Macaronesian endemics. Tyto alba schmitzi is a Madeiran subspecies of Western barn owl, Accipiter nisus granti is a Macaronesian subspecies of Eurasian sparrowhawk, and Falco tinnunculus canariensis is a Macaronesian subspecies of common kestrel. The plain swift (Apus unicolor) breeds on Madeira and the Canary Islands and can be found in northwestern Africa. Two extinct species of rail, the Madeira rail (Rallus lowei) and Porto Santo rail (Rallus adolfocaesaris), once lived on the archipelago, on Madeira and Porto Santo islands, respectively.

Zino's petrel is a Madeiran breeding endemic, and the Desertas petrel breeds only on the Desertas islands. Other seabirds include the Madeiran storm petrel (Oceanodroma castro), Fea's petrel (Pterodroma feae), little shearwater (Puffinus assimilis baroli), white-faced storm petrel (Pelagodroma marina hypoleuca), and yellow-legged gull (Larus michahellis). Regular visitors include the little egret (Egretta garzetta), cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), Eurasian whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), dunlin (Calidris alpina), and ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres).

Two bats live on the islands—the Madeira pipistrelle (Pipistrellus maderensis), a Macaronesian endemic, and a subspecies of lesser noctule (Nyctalus leisleri verrucosus).

The islands have two endemic lizard species. The Madeiran wall lizard (Teira dugesii) lives on Madeira, Porto Santo, the Desertas, and the Selvagens.

The islands have over 500 terrestrial invertebrate species, including insects, spiders, and molluscs.

Human impacts

Portuguese settlers arrived after 1420 and were the first known people to live on the islands. The trees were cut down for their wood, and a type of tree called Persea indica was especially valuable. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the southern part of Madeira was changed into sugarcane fields. A system of levadas, which are water channels 80 to 150 centimeters (31 to 59 inches) wide, was built using stone and later concrete to water the sugarcane crops. Forests and shrublands were cleared to make charcoal for the islands' sugar mills. Goats, sheep, and cows were brought to the islands, and forests were turned into pasture land. The area under the trees was heavily grazed by these animals.

Many non-native plants and animals were introduced to the islands. Some of these species have spread rapidly and harmed native plants. Plantations of Pinus pinaster and Eucalyptus globulus were planted at mid-elevations. Eucalyptus has grown widely on the southern slope of Madeira, taking over land that was once home to native species.

Conservation and protected areas

About 15,000 hectares (37,000 acres) of laurissilva forest remain on the island of Madeira, mostly on the northern side. Ninety percent of this forest is primary forest, meaning it has not been disturbed by humans. Trees in this forest are up to 800 years old and existed before people settled on the island. The remaining 10% of the forest is secondary growth, which began to regrow after logging stopped in the mid-20th century.

Forty-eight hundred and thirty square kilometers (186 square miles), or 60% of the ecoregion, is protected. Madeira Natural Park, created in 1982, covers 444 square kilometers (171 square miles) and includes most of the island, including the remaining laurissilva forests. Starting in the 1980s, goats and sheep were removed from the forests and non-forested areas of the park. This helped the forest’s lower layers and shrublands recover.

The Madeira Islands laurel forest was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999. It covers 150 square kilometers (58 square miles) and is believed to be 90% primary forest. Fossil evidence shows that laurel forests existed on Madeira at least 1.8 million years ago.

UNESCO included this area in the World Heritage list because it is the largest remaining laurel forest. These forests once covered much of Europe but are now nearly gone. The forest is also a center for plant diversity and includes many species that are found only in this area, such as certain mosses, ferns, and flowering plants. It also has a rich variety of insects and animals, including the Madeira laurel pigeon, which is unique to the island.

The Selvagens Islands became a nature reserve in 1971, and the Desertas Islands became a reserve in 1990.