Macquarie Island is a subantarctic island in the south-western Pacific Ocean, located about halfway between New Zealand and Antarctica. It has been part of Tasmania, Australia, since 1880. In 1978, it became a Tasmanian State Reserve, and in 1997, it was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Macquarie Island is a visible part of the Macquarie Ridge and is situated at the point where the Australian plate meets the Pacific plate.

The island is where all royal penguins live during their nesting season each year. Ecologically, it belongs to the Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion.

History

Frederick Hasselborough, an Australian, discovered the uninhabited island on July 11, 1810, while searching for new areas to hunt seals. He claimed Macquarie Island for Britain and added it to the colony of New South Wales in 1810. The island was named after Colonel Lachlan Macquarie, who was the governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821. Hasselborough reported seeing the remains of a ship that appeared very old, which led people to wonder if the island had been visited earlier by Polynesians or others. In the same year, Captain Smith described the same wreck in more detail and wrongly believed it belonged to French explorer Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse: "several pieces of wreck of a large vessel on this Island, apparently very old and high up in the grass, probably the remains of the ship of the unfortunate De la Perouse."

Between 1810 and 1919, seals and penguins were hunted for their oil, nearly driving them to extinction. Items left behind by sealers include iron try pots, casks, hut ruins, graves, and inscriptions. During this time, 144 ships visited the island, 12 of which crashed. The harsh conditions on the island and surrounding seas made it unsuitable as a place to punish criminals, and the plan was abandoned.

Richard Siddins and his crew were shipwrecked in Hasselborough Bay on June 11, 1812. Joseph Underwood sent the ship Elizabeth and Mary to rescue the remaining crew. In 1820, the Russian explorer Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen explored the area for Alexander I of Russia and created the first map of Macquarie Island. Bellingshausen landed on the island on November 28, 1820, identified its location, and traded rum and food with sealers for the island's wildlife.

In 1877, the crew of the schooner Bencleugh was shipwrecked on the island for four months. Folklore says they believed there was hidden treasure on the island. The ship's owner, John Sen Inches Thomson, wrote a book about his sea travels, including his time on the island. The book, published in 1912, was titled Voyages and Wanderings In Far-off Seas and Lands.

Macquarie Island became part of Tasmania on June 17, 1880, through a legal document called Letters Patent for the Governor of Tasmania.

In 1890, the Colony of New Zealand asked Lord Onslow (the governor of New Zealand), Philip Fysh (the premier of Tasmania), and Lord Knutsford (the secretary of state for the colonies) about the island. New Zealand first asked for permission to claim the island, then requested its transfer from Tasmania, as this would close a loophole in New Zealand's sealing rules. Fysh suggested that the Tasmanian Legislative Council pass a motion to transfer the island to New Zealand. Fysh delayed the process, and the request was only officially sent to the Tasmanian Legislative Assembly on August 28, 1890.

When the Legislative Assembly discussed the matter on September 2, 1890, some members questioned the benefits of transferring the island. After several interruptions and jokes, the assembly postponed the decision until the next day, effectively rejecting the transfer. By October 1890, it was clear that Tasmania would not allow the island to be transferred to New Zealand. Sir Harry Atkinson (premier of New Zealand) expressed disappointment, while Fysh noted that New Zealand's goals could be met through existing Tasmanian laws and agreements. In mid-October 1890, The Southland Times reported that an explanation would soon come from Wellington. On October 23, 1890, Fysh formally told New Zealand that Tasmania refused the transfer, and on November 20, 1890, Knutsford informed Onslow that the British government did not approve the transfer.

On April 20, 1891, rules to protect seals on Macquarie Island were introduced by the Tasmanian Commissioner of Fisheries. These rules were based on the Fisheries Act 1889. By October 26, 1891, the rules were changed to end on July 20, 1894, and no longer included penalties like seizing a ship for breaking the rules.

Between 1902 and 1920, the Tasmanian Government leased the island to Joseph Hatch (1837–1928) for his oil industry, which relied on harvesting penguins.

Between 1911 and 1914, the island served as a base for the Australasian Antarctic Expedition led by Sir Douglas Mawson. George Ainsworth ran a weather station from 1911 to 1913, followed by Harold Power from 1913 to 1914, and Arthur Tulloch from 1914 until the station closed in 1915.

In 1933, the island was declared a wildlife sanctuary under the Tasmanian Animals and Birds Protection Act 1928. In 1972, it became a State Reserve under the Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970. On May 25, 1948, the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE) set up its headquarters on Macquarie Island. In March 1949, the Fifth French Antarctic Expedition visited the island on their return trip from Adélie Land, but could not land due to heavy ice.

The island was a biosphere reserve under the Man and the Biosphere Programme from 1977 until 2011. On December 5, 1997, Macquarie Island was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List as a site of major geological importance, being the only mid-ocean ridge where rocks from Earth's mantle are exposed above sea level.

On December 23, 2004, an earthquake measuring 8.1 on the moment magnitude scale struck the island but caused no major damage. Geoscience Australia issued a warning about the risk of a tsunami caused by a local earthquake, which could flood the isthmus and the existing station. Such a tsunami

Geography

Macquarie Island is approximately 34 kilometers (21 miles) long and 5 kilometers (3 miles) wide, covering an area of 128 square kilometers (49 square miles). The island has two high, flat areas at its northern and southern ends, each rising 150 to 200 meters (490 to 660 feet), connected by a narrow, low strip of land. The highest points are Mount Elder on the northeastern coastal ridge, which reaches 385 meters (1,263 feet), and Mounts Hamilton and Fletcher in the south, which rise to 410 meters (1,345 feet). The island is nearly the same distance from Tasmania and the Anderson Peninsula in Antarctica, about 1,500 kilometers (930 miles) from each location. It is also located approximately 630 kilometers (390 miles) southwest of Auckland Island and 1,300 kilometers (810 miles) north of the Balleny Islands.

Near Macquarie Island are two small groups of islands: the Judge and Clerk Islets, located 14 kilometers (9 miles) to the north, covering an area of 0.2 square kilometers (49 acres), and the Bishop and Clerk Islets, 34 kilometers (21 miles) to the south, covering 0.6 square kilometers (150 acres). Both groups are part of the state of Tasmania. The Bishop and Clerk Islets mark the southernmost point of Australia, excluding the Australian Antarctic Territory.

In the 19th century, a phantom island called "Emerald Island" was thought to exist south of Macquarie Island.

Geology

The island is located at the edge where two large pieces of Earth's crust, called the Australian plate and the Pacific plate, meet. It is part of the Macquarie Ridge, a long fault zone in the ocean floor that stretches southwest from New Zealand along the boundary of these plates. The Macquarie Ridge formed as the two plates moved toward each other, causing the Earth's crust to rise along the boundary. Earlier, the plates had moved apart, allowing hot rock from Earth's deep mantle to rise and form basalt, a type of volcanic rock, on the ocean floor. Later, when the plates changed direction, the basalt was pushed upward along the Macquarie Ridge.

The Macquarie Ridge lies mostly underwater, except for where it rises above sea level at Macquarie Island. The island rose above sea level in recent geological time, possibly as little as 300,000 years ago. Scientists estimate this timing based on how fast the land has risen and changes in sea level over time. Macquarie Island is an example of an ophiolite, a rare type of rock that includes parts of Earth's oceanic crust and the upper mantle exposed on the surface. This process has been compared to "the island being squeezed upward like toothpaste from a tube." The island shows excellent examples of pillow basalts, a type of volcanic rock, with no signs of contamination from continental crust. Other volcanic rocks are also visible. The island's geology is described as revealing "the best exposed and most isolated pieces of the ocean floor in the world." These unique rock formations were one of the reasons Macquarie Island was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997.

The island is near the edge of Zealandia, a large underwater continent, but it is not considered part of Zealandia because the Macquarie Ridge is made of oceanic crust, not continental crust.

Climate

Macquarie Island's climate is influenced by the ocean, and all months have average temperatures above freezing. Snow is common from May to November and may occur even during summer. The island has a tundra climate (ET) according to the Köppen climate classification due to its very cold summers.

The highest daily temperatures average 4.9°C (40.8°F) in July and 8.8°C (47.8°F) in January. Rain and snow fall regularly throughout the year, with an average of 1,002.1 mm (39.45 in) of precipitation annually. Macquarie Island is one of the cloudiest places on Earth, receiving an average of 862 hours of sunshine each year, similar to Tórshavn in the Faroe Islands. Each year, there are about 289 cloudy days and only 3.5 clear days.

There are 316.7 days of precipitation annually, including 55.7 snowy days, a number equal to Charlotte Pass. This is much lower than at Heard Island, which receives 96.8 snowy days because of its location at 53 degrees south.

Flora and fauna

The plants on the island are closely related to those found on other subantarctic islands, especially those located south of New Zealand. Most plants grow less than 1 meter (3 feet 3 inches) tall, except for the tussock-forming grass Poa foliosa, which can reach up to 2 meters (6 feet 7 inches) in height in protected areas. There are more than 45 types of vascular plants, over 90 moss species, and many liverworts and lichens. No trees or shrubs grow on the island.

The island has five main types of plant communities: grassland, herbfield, fen, bog, and feldmark. Bog areas include "featherbed," a deep, spongy peat bog covered with grasses and low herbs, and small pools of water. Some plants found only on this island include the cushion plant Azorella macquariensis, the grass Puccinellia macquariensis, and two orchid species—Corybas dienemus and Corybas sulcatus.

Mammals living on the island include subantarctic fur seals, Antarctic fur seals, New Zealand fur seals, and southern elephant seals, with more than 80,000 southern elephant seals. Scientists know less about the variety and distribution of whales, but southern right whales and orcas are commonly seen. Other whales, such as sperm whales and beaked whales, are also present but prefer deeper waters. Some researchers believe that seals once found on the Antipodes Islands and Macquarie Island may be a distinct type of fur seal with thicker fur, though it is not certain if they were genetically different.

Royal penguins and Macquarie shags breed only on this island. King penguins, western rockhopper penguins, and gentoo penguins also breed here in large numbers. BirdLife International has identified the island as an Important Bird Area because it supports about 3.5 million breeding seabirds from 13 different species.

Human interaction

In 1933, the Tasmanian Government made Macquarie Island a wildlife sanctuary. In 1971, the island’s status changed to a conservation area. In 1972, it became a state reserve called the Macquarie Island Wildlife Reserve. In 1977, the island was added to the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve list and also listed on the Australia Register of the National Estate. In 1978, the reserve was expanded to include the mean low-water mark and offshore islets, and it was renamed the Macquarie Island Nature Reserve. From 1979, access to the reserve required a permit.

In December 1997, Macquarie Island was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Site list, covering the reserve and surrounding waters up to 12 nautical miles. The Macquarie Island Marine Park was created in 1999. In 2000, the Nature Reserve was expanded to include areas up to 3 nautical miles from the island and its outlying islets.

Ecotourism cruise ships visit the island, but the number of visitors is limited to 2,000 each year.

European visitors arrived in 1810, which harmed the island’s ecosystem. Fur seals, elephant seals, and penguins were hunted for their fur and blubber. Rats and mice, accidentally brought by ships, multiplied because there were no natural predators. Cats were later introduced to control the rodents. In about 1870, rabbits and New Zealand rails were left on the island by sealers. This led to the extinction of several native species, including the Macquarie rail, Macquarie parakeet, and an unknown species of teal. By the 1970s, 130,000 rabbits caused severe damage to vegetation.

Feral cats harmed native seabirds, killing about 60,000 each year. From 1985, efforts began to remove cats. In June 2000, the last of nearly 2,500 cats were removed to protect seabirds. After the cats were gone, rabbit and rat populations grew, causing more environmental damage.

Rabbit numbers dropped to about 10,000 in the 1980s when a virus called myxomatosis was used. However, by 2006, rabbits had grown to over 100,000. Rats and mice eating bird eggs, and rabbits eating grass, caused soil erosion and cliff collapses, destroying seabird nests. In 2006, a large landslip at Lusitania Bay damaged a penguin colony. Scientists linked the landslip to heavy rains and erosion from rabbits.

Research in 2009 showed that removing cats allowed rabbit numbers to increase, harming vegetation. Other scientists suggested other factors, like reduced use of the myxoma virus, were more important. The original researchers later confirmed that the virus had little effect and that cats were not controlling rabbits before the virus was used.

In 2007, the Australian and Tasmanian Governments agreed to spend A$24 million to remove rabbits, rats, and mice. The plan used baiting similar to a program on Campbell Island, New Zealand, and trained dogs. However, the program was paused after more bird deaths than expected. Other species, like giant petrels and black ducks, were also affected.

By 2012, rabbits, rats, and mice were nearly gone. In 2014, Macquarie Island was declared pest-free after seven years of work. This was the largest successful island pest-eradication program at the time. By 2024, the island remained pest-free for 10 years, and vegetation had recovered.

Bird populations have improved. The white-headed petrel, once nearly gone, is now increasing. Grey and blue petrels, which had disappeared from the island, have returned. Giant petrels and skuas are also returning to their former numbers. Continued monitoring and biosecurity measures, like checking cargo with dogs, are needed to address new threats like climate change and bird flu.

Although the island is pest-free, invasive birds like domestic mallards and European starlings remain. Mallards threaten the Pacific black duck population through hybridization. Over 40 non-native invertebrates, such as slugs, earthworms, and flatworms, have also established themselves on the island.

Governance and administration

Macquarie Island has been part of Tasmania, Australia, since 1880. It was part of the Esperance Municipality until 1993, when the municipality merged with others to form Huon Valley Council.

Since 1948, the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) has operated a permanent base called the Macquarie Island Station on the narrow strip of land at the northern end of the island, near Wireless Hill. The base, which is the only place where people live on the island, usually has between 20 and 40 people living there throughout the year. A nearby area has a heliport for helicopter landings.

In September 2016, the AAD announced it would close the research station on the island in 2017. However, after people expressed concern, the Australian government decided to keep the base open and improve the aging buildings.

In 2018, the AAD shared a map showing which buildings on the island had confirmed or suspected asbestos contamination, which affected at least half of the structures there.

In April 2024, Huon Valley Council ended the use of Permanent Daylight-Saving Time on Macquarie Island and changed it to Summer Daylight-Saving Time. Previously, Macquarie Island was the only place in the world to use Permanent Daylight-Saving Time. This time change was intended to help people working at the Macquarie Island Station, but later, permission was granted for a permanent human population to live there.

Through "Operation Southern Discovery," parts of the Australian Defence Force help the AAD and the Australian Antarctic Program with scientific, environmental, and economic activities each year. As part of "Operation Resolute," the Royal Australian Navy and Australian Border Force use Cape or Armidale-class patrol boats to perform maritime security tasks in the region when needed. As of 2023, the Navy is replacing the Armidale-class boats with larger Arafura-class offshore patrol vessels.

Gallery

• A beach on Macquarie Island
• Plants found on Macquarie Island, Epilobium pedunculare
• Plants found on Macquarie Island, Azorella polaris
• Royal penguins
• Male bull elephant seals fighting
• Macquarie shag
• A gentoo penguin with its chick
• King penguins at Lusitania Bay
• Eastern rockhopper penguins
• Sooty albatross
• Macquarie Island Station
• Snowy albatross
• Green Gorge hut and king penguins
• A highland herbfield area where Pleurophyllum hookeri is the main plant

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