The Longmen Grottoes (simplified Chinese: 龙门石窟; traditional Chinese: 龍門石窟; pinyin: Lóngmén Shíkū; lit. "Dragon's Gate Grottoes") or Longmen Caves are some of the best examples of Chinese Buddhist art. They contain tens of thousands of statues of Shakyamuni Buddha and his followers. The grottoes are located 12 kilometers (7.5 miles) south of Luoyang, a city in Henan province, China. Many of the statues were originally painted and were carved into rock reliefs on the outside and inside of artificial caves dug from limestone cliffs. These cliffs, called Xiangshan and Longmenshan, run east and west. The Yi River flows north between the cliffs, and the area was once known as Yique ("The Gate of the Yi River"). The name "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" comes from the way the two hills that block the river resemble traditional Chinese gate towers that marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.
There are as many as 100,000 statues in 2,345 caves, with sizes ranging from 1 inch (25 mm) to 57 feet (17 m). The area also has nearly 2,500 stone pillars and inscriptions, which is why it is called the "Forest of Ancient Stelae." It also includes more than sixty Buddhist pagodas. The caves were carved into a 1-kilometer (0.62-mile) stretch of cliff along both sides of the river. About 30% of the caves date to the Northern Wei dynasty, and 60% date to the Tang dynasty. Caves from other time periods make up less than 10% of the total. Work on the grottoes began in 493 AD during the Northern Wei dynasty, and patrons included emperors, Wu Zetian, members of the royal family, wealthy families, generals, and religious groups.
In 2000, the site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List as "an outstanding example of human artistic creativity." It was recognized for its mastery of an art form and for showing the cultural achievements of Tang China.
Geography
The Longmen Grottoes are one of the three major grotto sites in China, along with the Yungang Caves near Datong in Shanxi Province and the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu Province. The Yi River flows through a valley between two hills, Xiangshan to the east and Longmenshan to the west. These hills have steep sides along the river. The Yi River is a northern tributary of the Luo River. The grottoes were carved in a 1 km section of the river, on both banks, within limestone rock to create the Longmen Caves. Most of the carving work was done on the western bank, while the smaller caves on the eastern bank were used as homes for groups of monks.
There are about 1,400 caves in total, containing 100,000 statues. Some statues are as small as 1 inch (25 mm), while the largest Buddha statue is 57 feet (17 m) tall. The site also includes around 2,500 stelae and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium-sized caves on the western hill were created during the Northern Wei, Sui, and Tang dynasties. The caves on the eastern hill were all carved during the Tang dynasty. The many caves, statues, and pagodas show a clear change in style over time. Early caves had simple designs with carvings of Buddha and religious figures. The style became more complex during the Tang dynasty, including images of women and court figures. The caves are numbered from north to south along the western bank of the Yi River. Visitors enter the caves at the northern end.
History
The earliest history of the Longmen Grottoes begins during the reign of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei dynasty, when he moved the capital from Datong to Luoyang. Luoyang was an important city because it served as the capital for 13 different dynasties. The grottoes were carved with Buddhist images from 493 AD to 1127 AD, divided into four main periods. The first period was during the Northern Wei dynasty (493–534). The second period, from 524 to 626, saw slower progress due to conflicts during the Sui dynasty (581–618) and early Tang dynasty (618–907). The third period, during the Tang dynasty (626–mid-8th century), was a time of growth in the grottoes as Chinese Buddhism became more popular. The fourth period, from the later Tang dynasty to the Northern Song dynasty, saw fewer new grottoes. This ended because of wars between the Jin and Yuan dynasties.
Guyang-dong, also called the Shiku Temple, was the first cave temple built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. Emperor Xuanwu of the Northern Wei dynasty later created three more caves: two to honor his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one to honor his mother. These three caves are known as the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsan-dong) and were built over 24 years. More than 30% of the caves visible today were made during this time.
In 527 AD, the Huangfugong or Shiku-si grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is well-preserved and located to the south of the West Hill.
In 675 AD, the Fengxian-si Cave was completed on the southern floor of the West Hill during the Tang dynasty. This marked the third phase of creation, which was the most active period for the grottoes. About 60% of the caves seen today were built between 626 and 755 AD. During this time, many caves with Buddha statues of different sizes were created, and some Buddhist temples were built in open areas. However, most of these temples are now in ruins. Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu Zetian helped increase activity at the site during their rule in Luoyang.
From 1368 to 1912, the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and Qing dynasty (1644–1912) ruled China. During this time, there was a cultural revival, and the Longmen Grottoes gained recognition both in China and abroad.
After the Qing dynasty fell, the site suffered serious damage. In the early 20th century, many artifacts were taken by Western collectors and souvenir hunters. Two murals from the grottoes are now displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, Missouri. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese stole many statues and took them to Japan. Many of these items are now in Japanese museums.
In the 1940s, political unrest caused more damage to the grottoes. After the People’s Republic of China was established in 1949, the grottoes were declared a protected area. Article 22 of China’s Constitution, which includes rules for protecting natural and cultural heritage, helped guide conservation efforts.
In 1953, the Longmen Relics Care Agency was created under the Ministry of Culture. A site inventory was completed in 1954 by the Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. In 1961, the State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes a national cultural monument needing special protection. During the Cultural Revolution, many statues had their heads destroyed. In 1982, the grottoes were named one of the first state-level scenic zones to be protected. In 1990, the Management and Conservation Office became the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute. The Luoyang City government took over management in 1990. In 2002, the organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy.
Artistic significance
The Longmen Grottoes are an important example of how Chinese Buddhist art developed over time. Studies by experts have shown that the art from the Northern Dynasties to the Tang dynasty combined styles from Central Asia with local Chinese traditions. According to Zhang and Abdullah (2026), the details and methods used in carving Buddha figures, bodhisattva images, and flying apsaras at Longmen show how Chinese art changed as Buddhist ideas influenced sculpture techniques and cultural practices. The study highlights that the art at Longmen shows how religious symbols, new techniques, and local artistic styles worked together to create unique sculptures.
Grottoes
There are several large caves with important Buddhist statues and writings. Some main caves and the years work began in them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (around 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684). The Guyang, Binyang, and Lianhua caves are shaped like a horseshoe.
Guyangdong, also called Guyang Cave or Old Sun Cave, is the oldest cave at Longmen with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is the largest cave, located on the central part of the west hill. Emperor Xiaowen ordered its creation. The earliest carvings in this limestone cave date to 478 AD, during a time when Emperor Xiaowen was moving his capital from Datong to Luoyang. The Buddhist statues in the niches of this cave are well sculpted. There are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy written in the Northern Wei style. Many of the sculptures were made by royalty, and religious groups supported the work. The cave has three large images: the central image is of Sakyamuni Buddha with Bodhisattvas on either side. The statues have features typical of the Northern Wei style, with slim and thin figures. There are about 800 inscriptions on the walls and in the niches inside the cave, the most in any cave in China. Two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls hold many images; the artists recorded their names, the dates, and the reasons for carving them.
Binyang has three caves: North Binyang Cave, Middle Binyang Cave, and South Binyang Cave. The middle cave is the most important.
The Middle Binyang Cave is carved in the Datong style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwu to honor his father, Xiaowen, and his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five large Buddhist statues are carved in the Northern Wei style. The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisattvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups, represent Buddhas of the past, present, and future. The roof has a canopy shaped like a lotus flower. Two large bas-reliefs of imperial processions, including Emperor Xiaowen, Empress Dowager Wenzhao, and the emperor’s late parents in worship, were stolen in the mid-1930s. One is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and two-thirds of the other is in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City. Some statues have "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes, and traces of Greek influence," while others are in the Tang dynasty style and look more natural.
The South Binyang Cave has five large images carved by Li Tai, the fourth son of Emperor Taizong of Tang, the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD to honor his mother, Empress Zhangsun. The central image is of Amitabha Buddha, seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, in a blend of Northern Wei and Tang styles.
Fengxian, or Fengxian-si, or Li Zhi Cave, is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave. It is the largest cave carved on the west hill, built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are considered the best example of Tang dynasty architecture. The shrine inside the cave measures 39 meters by 35 meters. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes. Of the nine large statues, the most impressive is Vairocana Buddha, carved on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14 meters high with 2-meter-long ears. It is believed to be modeled after Empress Wu Zetian. An inscription at the base of the statue gives 676 as the year it was carved. The Bodhisattva on the left of the main Buddha image is decorated with a crown and pearls. A divine figure is shown trampling an evil spirit. The Vairocana image has a plump and peaceful expression. Each of the other large statues has expressions matching their roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian and are considered representative of the Tang dynasty’s "vigorous, elegant, and realistic style." The Vairocana statue is considered the best example of Buddhist sculpture in China.
The Vairocana statue also lists the names of the artisans who worked on it, the name of Emperor Gaozong, the donor, and honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this work. The Vairocana Buddha is thought to resemble Empress Wu Zetian and is sometimes called the "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus, or Mother of China." All the remaining images show clear character and movement. Statues of Kasyapa and Ananda, the two main disciples of Vairocana, and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, along with images of lokapalas (guardians), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying devas, and other figures.
Huangfugong, or Shiku-si, is a three-wall, three-niche cave located south of the west hill. It was carved in 527 and is well preserved. Seven Buddhas are carved on the lintel, giving the appearance of wood. Seven large images are seen in the main hall, with the Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Images of Buddhist groups are also carved in the niches. A large lotus flower is carved in the roof, flanked by eight musical apsaras. It was created by Huangfu Du, the uncle of
Temples
There are many temples at the Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones are Xiangshan Temple, Bai Garden Temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi. Others include Tongle Temple, built during the time of Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo Temples, built during the time of Emperor Wencheng; Tiangong Temple, built during the time of Emperor Xiaowen; and Chongfu Temple, built during the time of Emperor Qianer.
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the middle part of the east hill. The name "Xiangshan" comes from a plant called "Xiangge," which grows widely on the hill slopes. The temple was rebuilt in 1707 during the Qing dynasty, modeled after an older temple that had been there before. In 2002, the Longmen Grottoes Administration added new parts to the temple, including a belfry, a drum tower, a wing room, the Hall of Mahavira, the Hall of Nine Persons and Eighteen Arhats, and the Villa of Chiang Kai-shek and Soong Mei-ling. New additions also included boardwalks, a compound wall, and a new gate at the southern end of the temple.
Bai Garden Temple is located on the Pipa peak, north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was rebuilt in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing dynasty. The temple is surrounded by many pine and cypress trees.
The Tomb of Bai Juyi is on the east bank. It belongs to Bai Juyi, a famous poet from the Tang dynasty who lived in Luoyang during his later years. The tomb is located on the hilltop. To reach it, visitors cross a bridge over the Yi River from the west bank. The tomb is a circular hill made of earth that is 4 meters tall and has a circumference of 52 meters. It is 2.80 meters high and has the poet's name, Bai Juyi, carved into it.
Preservation and restoration
One important success in this area is UNESCO recognizing the Longmen Grottoes as a heritage site. After careful evaluation over time, UNESCO added the grottoes to its World Heritage List. This recognition is based on three criteria: (i) the sculptures show human creativity in art; (ii) the grottoes show how an art form developed over time and influenced culture in Asia; and (iii) the carvings reflect the advanced society of the Tang dynasty in China. This recognition also requires the Chinese government to protect the site according to guidelines, after regular inspections of the area.
Since 1951, efforts have been made to identify, mark, plan, and repair the grottoes. A weather monitoring station was set up near the grottoes to study the environment and plan repairs. Workers then strengthened the rock bases to stop water from seeping into the grottoes. Overgrown plants with roots were removed. New paths, railings, and steps were added to help visitors reach the caves safely. Over nearly six decades, these efforts by the Chinese government have kept the grottoes in good condition. These efforts involved three groups: the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection, which provided scientific advice; the China University of Geosciences; and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Money for research and repairs came from the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by Luoyang City’s government in 1999.