The Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos are located in the Santa Cruz department in eastern Bolivia. Six of these former missions, now independent towns, were named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990. These missions are known for blending European and indigenous cultural traditions. They were created by Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries as settlements to teach local tribes about Christianity.
At the end of the 17th century, the area near Spanish and Portuguese lands in South America was not well explored. Jesuits, sent by the Spanish Crown, explored and built eleven settlements over 76 years in the remote Chiquitania region. They constructed churches in a style that mixed European and local architectural features. Indigenous people living in the missions were taught European music as part of religious education. The missions were self-sufficient, with strong economies and limited dependence on the Spanish Crown.
After the Jesuits were forced to leave Spanish territories in 1767, most missions in South America were abandoned and fell into disrepair. The Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos are special because these settlements and their culture remained largely unchanged.
In 1972, a former Swiss Jesuit and architect named Hans Roth began restoring the mission churches. Since 1990, these former missions have become popular tourist attractions. A biennial international music festival organized by the nonprofit group Asociación Pro Arte y Cultura, along with other cultural events in the mission towns, help increase their popularity.
Location
The six World Heritage Site settlements are found in the hot and dry lowlands of the Santa Cruz region in eastern Bolivia. These settlements are located in an area near the Gran Chaco, to the east and northeast of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, between the Paraguay and Guapay rivers.
The westernmost settlements are San Xavier (also called San Javier) and Concepción. These are located in the Ñuflo de Chávez province, between the San Julián and Urugayito rivers. To the east, in the José Miguel de Velasco province, near the border with Brazil, are Santa Ana de Velasco, San Miguel de Velasco, and San Rafael de Velasco. San José de Chiquitos is located in the Chiquitos province, about 200 kilometers (120 miles) south of San Rafael.
Three other former Jesuit missions—San Juan Bautista (now in ruins), Santo Corazón, and Santiago de Chiquitos—are not named UNESCO heritage sites. These missions are located east of San José de Chiquitos, near the town of Roboré. San Ignacio de Velasco, the capital of the José Miguel de Velasco province, was originally founded as a Jesuit mission. However, it is not a World Heritage Site because the current church is a reconstruction, not a restoration.
The name "Chiquitos"
In the 16th century, Ñuflo de Chávez, a Spanish explorer and founder of Santa Cruz "la Vieja," introduced the name "Chiquitos," which means "little ones." This name described the small doors on the thatched-roof houses where Indigenous people lived. Over time, the term "Chiquitos" has been used incorrectly to describe the largest ethnic group in the area (properly called Chiquitano) and also to refer broadly to more than 40 different ethnic groups with unique languages and cultures in the region known as the [Gran] Chiquitania. Correctly, "Chiquitos" refers only to a modern province in Bolivia or the former region of Upper Peru (now part of Bolivia), which once covered all of the Chiquitania and parts of Mojos (or Moxos) and the Gran Chaco.
Today, the provinces within the Santa Cruz department are divided differently from the Jesuits' original missionary areas. The Chiquitania region is now located within five modern provinces: Ángel Sandoval, Germán Busch, José Miguel de Velasco, Ñuflo de Chávez, and Chiquitos.
History
In the 16th century, priests from different religious groups traveled to the Americas to spread Christianity to indigenous people. Two of these groups were the Franciscans and the Jesuits. Both eventually reached the town of Santa Cruz de la Sierra and the Chiquitania region. The missionaries gathered nomadic indigenous groups into larger communities called reductions to help teach them about Christianity. This idea came from the belief that indigenous people needed protection and guidance from European missionaries to avoid sin. Reductions were often used to help native people adopt European culture and the Christian religion. The Jesuits were unique because they tried to create a theocratic "state within a state," where indigenous people in reductions would stay independent and separate from Spanish colonists.
With permission from King Philip II of Spain, a group of Jesuits arrived in the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1568, about 30 years after other religious groups like the Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and Mercedarians. The Jesuits settled in Lima in 1569 before moving east toward Paraguay. In 1572, they reached the Audience of Charcas, now part of Bolivia. Because they could not build settlements on the frontier, they created chapter houses, churches, and schools in existing towns like La Paz, Potosí, and La Plata (now Sucre).
In 1587, the first Jesuits, Fr. Diego Samaniego and Fr. Diego Martínez, arrived in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, located south of where the future mission of San José de Chiquitos would be built. In 1592, the settlement was moved 250 kilometers west due to conflicts with native people. The remains of the original town are found at the Santa Cruz la Vieja archaeological site. The Jesuits did not start missions in the valleys northeast of the cordillera until the 17th century. Their main areas of activity were Moxos, in the Beni department, and the Chiquitania (then called Chiquitos), in the Santa Cruz de la Sierra department. In 1682, Fr. Cipriano Barace founded the first Jesuit reduction in Moxos, located at Loreto.
While missions in Paraguay thrived, spreading Christianity to the Eastern Bolivian Guarani (Chiriguanos) was difficult. With support from Agustín Gutiérrez de Arce, the governor of Santa Cruz, the Jesuits focused on the Chiquitania, where the indigenous people were more willing to accept the Christian faith. Between 1691 and 1760, eleven missions were built in the area. However, many missions were rebuilt due to fires, floods, plagues, famines, and conflicts with hostile tribes or slave traders. The Chiquitos missions faced periodic outbreaks of European diseases, which killed up to 11% of the population in some cases. These epidemics were less severe than those in Paraguay, mainly because the Chiquitos region was remote and had poor transportation.
The first Jesuit mission in the Chiquitania was San Francisco Xavier, founded in 1691 by Fr. José de Arce. In September 1691, de Arce and Br. Antonio de Rivas planned to meet other Jesuits at the Paraguay River to connect Paraguay and Chiquitos. However, heavy rains delayed their journey, and they only reached the first native village. The Piñoca tribe, suffering from a plague, asked de Arce and Rivas to stay and promised to build a house and church for the Jesuits. These structures were completed by the end of the year. The mission was later moved several times until 1708, when it was finally established in its current location.
Ten more missions were built in the Chiquitania during three periods: the 1690s, the 1720s, and after 1748. In the 1690s, five missions were established: San Rafael de Velasco (1696), San José de Chiquitos (1698), Concepción (1699), and San Juan Bautista (1699). San Juan Bautista is not part of the World Heritage Site, and only the ruins of a stone tower remain near the village of San Juan de Taperas.
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) caused a shortage of missionaries and instability in the reductions, so no new missions were built during this time. By 1718, San Rafael was the largest Chiquitos mission, with 2,615 people. It could not support a growing population, so in 1721, Fr. Felipe Suárez and Fr. Francisco Hervás created a split-off mission called San Miguel de Velasco. To the south, San Ignacio de Zamucos was founded in 1724 but abandoned in 1745. Nothing remains of this mission today.
A third period of mission building began in 1748 with the founding of San Ignacio de Velasco, which is not part of the World Heritage Site. The church there is a 20th-century reconstruction, not a renovation (a key requirement for World Heritage Site inclusion). In 1754, the mission of Santiago de Chiquitos was founded. This church is also a reconstruction from the early 20th century and is not part of the World Heritage Site. In 1755, the mission of Santa Ana de Velasco was built by Jesuit Julian Knogler. This mission is the most authentic of the six World Heritage Site missions from the colonial period. The last mission in the Chiquitania, Santo Corazón, was founded in 1760 by Fr. Antonio Gaspar and Fr. José Chueca. The local Mbaya people were hostile to the mission, and nothing remains of the original settlement in the modern village.
The Jesuits in the Chiquitania had a secondary goal: to find a more direct route to Asunción than the existing road through Tucumán and Tarija. Missionaries in Chiquitos built settlements further east toward the Paraguay River, while those south of Asunción moved north to avoid the impassable Chaco region. Although Ñuflo de
World Heritage missions
The mission of San Xavier was first established in 1691 and was the first mission listed in the World Heritage Site. In 1696, the mission was moved toward the San Miguel River because of an invasion by Paulistas from Brazil in the east. In 1698, it was moved closer to Santa Cruz, but in 1708, it was relocated again to protect the local Indigenous people from the Spaniards. The original people living there were the Piñoca tribe. The church was built between 1749 and 1752 by Fr. Martin Schmid, a Swiss Jesuit and architect. Today, the school, church, and other buildings from that time are still visible in the village. San Xavier was restored by Hans Roth from 1987 to 1993.
The mission of San Rafael de Velasco was the second mission built among the six included in the World Heritage Site. It was founded in 1695 by Jesuits Fr. Juan Bautista Zea and Fr. Francisco Hervás. The mission was moved several times: in 1701 and 1705 because of diseases in the area, and in 1719 because of a fire. Fr. Martin Schmid built the church between 1747 and 1749, and it still stands today. San Rafael de Velasco was restored from 1972 to 1996 as part of Hans Roth’s restoration project.
The mission of San José de Chiquitos was the third mission built among those in the World Heritage Site. It was founded in 1698 by Jesuits Fr. Felipe Suárez and Fr. Dionosio Ávila. The mission was originally inhabited by the Penoca tribe. The church was built between 1745 and 1760 by an unknown architect. Unlike other mission churches in the area, which used local adobe and wood, this church was made of stone. It is one of four missions that remain in their original location. A mortuary chapel (built in 1740), the church (1747), a bell tower (1748), a priests’ house (collegio), and workshops (built in 1754) still exist. These structures were renovated by Hans Roth’s restoration project from 1988 to 2003. Restoration efforts continue.
The fourth mission in the World Heritage Site, the mission of Concepción, was first founded in 1699 by Jesuits Fr. Francisco Lucas Caballero and Fr. Francisco Hervás. A nearby mission, San Ignacio de Boococas, was added in 1708. The mission was moved three times: in 1707, 1708, and 1722. The mission was inhabited by the Chiquitanos, the largest tribe in the region. The church was built between 1752 and 1756 by Fr. Martin Schmid and Fr. Johann Messner. From 1975 to 1996, the mission was reconstructed as part of Hans Roth’s restoration project.
The fifth mission in the World Heritage Site, San Miguel de Velasco, was established in 1721 by Jesuits Fr. Felipe Suárez and Fr. Francisco Hervás. San Miguel was created as a branch of San Rafael de Velasco because the population there had grown too large. The church was built between 1752 and 1759, likely by Fr. Johann Messner, who worked with or studied under Fr. Martin Schmid. The church was restored by Hans Roth from 1979 to 1983.
The mission of Santa Ana de Velasco was the last mission added to the World Heritage Site. It was founded in 1755 by Jesuit priest Fr. Julian Knogler. The original Indigenous people living there were the Covareca and Curuminaca tribes, who spoke dialects of the Otuke language. After the Jesuits were expelled between 1770 and 1780, the church was designed by an unknown architect and built entirely by the Indigenous population. The complex includes the church, bell tower, sacristy, and a grassy plaza surrounded by houses. It is considered the most faithful to the original plan of the Jesuit reductions. From 1989 to 2001, the mission was partially restored by Hans Roth and his team.
Architecture
The Jesuits designed the reductions based on ideas from "ideal cities" described in books like Utopia by Thomas More and Arcadia by Philip Sidney. They chose building sites with enough wood for construction, enough water for the people, good soil for farming, and protection from flooding during the rainy season. While most missions in the Chiquitania region were moved at least once during the Jesuits' time, four out of ten towns stayed in their original locations. Wood and adobe were the main materials used to build the settlements.
The layout of the missions followed a plan that was later used in other reductions with some changes. In Chiquitos, the oldest mission, San Xavier, set the basic design. This plan included a central square with a church on one side and homes on the other three sides. The Jesuits' focus on organization led to similar measurements and sizes across the settlements. Even though the towns shared a basic model, they showed differences, such as varying directions of the settlements based on local conditions.
The plaza was a large open space, ranging from 124 by 148 metres (407 ft × 486 ft) in older towns like San Xavier and San Rafael de Velasco to 166 by 198 metres (545 ft × 650 ft) in San Ignacio de Velasco. These spaces were used for religious and civic activities and were kept free of plants except for palm trees around a central cross. The palm trees, symbolizing eternal love, were linked to Psalm 92:12. Four chapels stood at the corners of the square and were used during processions. Most chapels no longer exist because the plazas were later redesigned to reflect a different lifestyle. Only the plaza in Santa Ana de Velasco remains largely unchanged, still an open grassy area as it was during the colonial period.
The homes of the indigenous people were long and arranged in rows extending from the main square in three directions. Those facing the plaza were often larger and belonged to tribal leaders. These homes had large rooms (6×4 meters), thick walls (up to 60 centimetres or 2 ft), and roofs made of reed and wood reaching 5 meters (16 ft) in height. Double doors and open galleries helped protect the homes from weather. These galleries continue to serve as meeting places today.
Over the last 150 years, the original layout has been replaced by Spanish colonial-style buildings with internal courtyards. Some older towns, like San Miguel de Velasco, San Rafael de Velasco, and Santa Ana de Velasco, still show traces of the original design because they were less affected by modernization.
Along the fourth side of the plaza were religious, cultural, and commercial centers, including the church, which was the main building. Other structures, such as a mortuary chapel, a tower, and a school, were connected by a wall along the plaza. Behind the wall were living quarters for priests, rooms for town meetings, music, and storage, as well as workshops arranged around a second courtyard. A vegetable garden and cemetery likely stood behind the buildings. Most of these areas no longer exist, though some church elements, like stone towers in San Juan Bautista and San José de Chiquitos, and an adobe tower in San Miguel de Velasco, date back to the Jesuit period. Others were built later or restored by Roth in the late 20th century. Only the churches in San Xavier and Concepción remain fully intact.
Once a settlement was established, the Jesuits and native people built the church, which became the town's center for education, culture, and economy. The first church in each mission (except Santa Ana de Velasco) was temporary, made quickly from local wood with only a simple altar. More permanent churches, like those in San Xavier, San Rafael de Velasco, and Concepción, were built decades later. Fr. Martin Schmid, a Swiss priest and composer, designed these churches, blending Christian and local styles into a unique baroque-mestizo design. He placed a quote from Genesis 28:17 above the entrances: "CASA DE DIOS Y PUERTA DEL CIELO" (Spanish) and "DOMUS DEI ET PORTA COELI" (Latin), meaning "The house of God and the gate of heaven."
Churches built between 1745 and 1770 used local materials like wood for carved columns, pulpits, and drawers. Decorations continued even after the Jesuits were expelled in 1767, until around 1830. Some altars are covered in gold. Adobe, the same material used for homes, was common for church walls. In San Rafael de Velasco and San Miguel de Velasco, mica was added to walls for an iridescent look. The church in San José de Chiquitos is unique, with a stone façade, and San Juan Bautista is the only other large-scale use of stone, though only a tower remains.
All churches had a wooden frame with columns for support, tile roofs, and adobe walls placed directly on the ground. Porticos and large porches protected the buildings from rain. Floors were covered in locally made tiles. The churches resemble large barns, with widths of 16–20 meters (52–66 ft), lengths of 50–60 meters (160–200 ft), and heights of 10–14 meters (33–46 ft), capable of holding over 3,000 people. This style is also seen in homes built by native communities.
Building the church required significant effort from the community, with hundreds of indigenous carpenters involved. Fr. José Cardiet described the process, noting that walls were decorated with cornices, moldings, pilasters, and sometimes blind arcades. The walls were first plastered with a mix of mud, sand, and other materials.
Life in the mission towns
The reductions were communities with 2,000 to 4,000 people who could take care of themselves. These communities were usually led by two Jesuit priests, a town council, and a tribal leader who helped communicate between the native people and the Jesuits. However, how much control the Jesuits had over the indigenous people and how much indigenous culture was allowed to continue is still debated. Some describe the reductions as peaceful places, while others call them strict religious rule. The peaceful description is closer to the truth.
Many Indigenous people joined the missions to escape slavery by Portuguese traders or the Spanish system that forced labor. In the missions, Indigenous people were free and had land that belonged to everyone. After marriage, families were given their own plots of land. The Jesuits aimed to create cities that were in harmony with the paradise they saw in the Indigenous way of life.
Though the settlements were part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and the church of Santa Cruz, their remote location made them independent. As early as 1515, a priest named Bartolomé de las Casas created a rule that only Jesuits and officials could live in the missions. Merchants could stay for up to three days.
The Jesuits learned the languages of the Indigenous people, which helped them spread Christianity and made the missions successful. At first, each mission was meant for one tribe, but many tribes lived together in the Chiquitania region. In 1745, 65.5% of the 14,706 people in the missions spoke Chiquitano, 11% Arawak, 9.1% Otuquis, 7.9% Zamucos, 4.4% Chapacura, and 2.1% Guaraní. Most people spoke Chiquitano as a second language. This mix of cultures was rare among Jesuit missions in the Americas. The Jesuits only recorded people as Christian or non-Christian, not by their specific tribes. Over time, the Chiquitano language became the main language used in the missions, and many tribes became part of the Chiquitano ethnic group. After the Jesuits were forced out in 1770, Spanish rulers pushed people to speak Spanish instead, which reduced the use of native languages.
Before contact with the Spanish, most Chiquitos tribes grew crops like maize and yuca using small plots of land. After meeting the Spanish, they also grew cocoa and rice. Hunting and fishing helped feed them during dry seasons. The Jesuits introduced cattle farming.
In each settlement, one Jesuit handled church matters, and another managed trade and daily life. A Swiss priest named Fr. Martin Schmid wrote in a 1744 letter from San Rafael that the Jesuits managed work, new technologies, and goods. Each family received what they needed to live. The Jesuits did not rely on donations because they were paid a fixed income by the community, though this was often not enough. The missions were economically strong and could send extra goods to other parts of Upper Peru, except Paraguay, which the Jesuits wanted to reach most. Money was not used in the missions, which led to the belief that the Jesuits had large amounts of wealth. In reality, the communities were successful but did not provide much income for the Jesuits.
All people, including children and elders, followed a schedule of work, religion, and rest. According to d'Orbigny, people in the Chiquitos missions had more freedom than those in the Mojos missions. They also spent less time on religious practices. The Jesuits taught Indigenous people various skills, such as carpentry, painting, weaving, and sculpture. Each settlement had its own group of craftsmen, creating a new class of artisans. These artisans and others who worked in farming or raising cattle were each led by two officials called alcaldes. Early products included honey, yerba maté, salt, tamarind, cotton, shoes, and leather. Later, artisans exported musical instruments, religious items, and silverware.
Music was important in daily life and in teaching Christianity. The Jesuits sent skilled musicians and composers to South America. One famous composer was Domenico Zipoli, who worked in Paraguay. Fr. Johann Mesner and Fr. Martin Schmid, both Jesuit musicians, went to the Chiquitania. Schmid helped develop music to a high level, with choirs singing and orchestras playing Baroque operas on handmade instruments. He built an organ with six stops in Potosí, then transported it 1,000 kilometers to Santa Ana de Velasco, where it was reassembled and is still used today. The Jesuits used music lessons as a way to teach Christianity.
In a 1744 letter from San Rafael de Velasco, Schmid wrote about the importance of music. Some Jesuit institutions still exist in the Chiquitania. For example, towns like San Rafael de Velasco, San Miguel de Velasco, Santa Ana de Velasco, and San Ignacio de Velasco have active town councils and leaders who still hold their roles. Most people in the region are Catholic, and the old Chiquitano beliefs are now mostly forgotten. Between 1992 and 2009, populations in San Xavier and Concepción more than tripled, and San Ignacio de Velasco grew the most, becoming the region’s fastest-growing town. Other mission towns also saw increases in population, though smaller. As of 2011, San José de Chiquitos, San Xavier, and Concepción each had about 10,000 people, while San Ignacio de Velasco had around 35,000 and now has a university campus. In contrast, Santa Ana de Velasco has only a few hundred people. Smaller towns like Santiago de Chiquitos and Santo Corazón also have small populations. According to some sources, between 30,000 and 47,000 people in Bolivia identify as Chiquitanos, with fewer than 6,000 still speaking their native languages.
Tourism
After the restoration work began, a report from UNESCO in 1977 examined the possibility of developing tourism at the missions.
To encourage tourism, groups such as travel agencies, local business organizations, town leaders, native communities, and other groups worked together to host the Lanzamiento mundial del Destino Turístico "Chiquitos", Misiones Jesuíticas de Bolivia, a five-day event held from March 23–27, 2006. During this event, journalists and international travel companies visited key attractions and learned about the culture through museum tours, local workshops, concerts, traditional dances, religious ceremonies, craft festivals, and local food. The organizers aimed to increase the number of tourists from 25,000 to 1 million each year over ten years, which would have brought in US$400 million. However, because the Bolivian government did not provide enough support and the economy faced challenges, the goal was later changed to attracting 200,000 to 250,000 visitors annually.
Tourism now provides significant income for the region. In Concepción Municipality alone, tourism contributes US$296,140, or 7.2% of the area’s total yearly production. An additional US$40,000, or 1%, comes from the sale of crafts. A 2007 report by the "Coordinadora Interinstitucional de la Provincia Velasco" stated that 17,381 people visited San Ignacio de Velasco, the largest town in the area, in 2006. About 30% of these visitors were from outside Bolivia. The main attractions for tourists are nearby missions, including San Miguel de Velasco, San Rafael de Velasco, and Santa Ana de Velasco. In 2006, tourism in San Ignacio de Velasco generated 7,821,450 Bolivianos in income. While tourism revenue is used to improve local infrastructure, some people have criticized the way funds are managed, saying they do not always reach their intended uses. In addition to cultural tourism and music festivals, the region has natural attractions such as rivers, lagoons, hot springs, caves, and waterfalls. However, there is no infrastructure in place to support tourism in these areas.
Cultural references
The movie The Mission shows many aspects of the early Jesuit missions. However, it focuses on the Guaraní missions in Paraguay, not the Chiquitos missions, which were much more culturally expressive. The events surrounding the Jesuits' expulsion, known as the Extrañamiento, are shown in Fritz Hochwälder's play Das heilige Experiment (The Strong Are Lonely). Both the movie and the play are set in Paraguay. Some scholars believe that Das heilige Experiment helped increase interest in the Jesuit missions during the 20th century.