Göbekli Tepe, also called "Potbelly Hill" in Kurdish, is an ancient archaeological site in modern-day Turkey, located in the region of Upper Mesopotamia. People lived there from about 9500 BCE to at least 8000 BCE, during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period. The site is famous for its large circular buildings made of massive stone pillars, some of the oldest known megaliths in the world. Many of these pillars have carvings of human-like figures, clothing, and wild animals, which help archaeologists learn about early religious beliefs and artwork from that time. The site covers an area about 8 hectares (20 acres) and includes ancient homes, small buildings, quarries, and stone water tanks from the Neolithic period, as well as signs of later activity.

Göbekli Tepe was first discovered in 1963 during an archaeological survey. In 1994, German archaeologist Klaus Schmidt recognized its importance and began studying it the next year. After his death in 2014, research continued as a joint project between Istanbul University, Şanlıurfa Museum, and the German Archaeological Institute, led by Turkish prehistorian Necmi Karul. The site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2018 because it represents one of the earliest examples of human-made large-scale architecture. As of 2021, about 10% of the site has been explored, with geophysical surveys showing at least 20 large enclosures beneath the surface.

Recent discoveries suggest that Göbekli Tepe had homes, tools for daily life, a water source, and evidence of grain processing. This challenges earlier ideas that the site was only a temporary gathering place for nomads. The purpose of the large stone structures remains unclear, though they are sometimes called the "world's first temples." These buildings likely had roofs and were damaged by landslides, requiring repairs or rebuilding. The design and artwork at Göbekli Tepe are similar to other nearby sites, such as Karahan Tepe.

The site is linked to the Neolithic Revolution, a time when humans began farming and settling in permanent communities. Scientists debate whether farming led to permanent homes or if living in one place encouraged farming. Göbekli Tepe, built on a rocky hill without clear signs of agriculture, plays a key role in this discussion.

Geography and environment

Göbekli Tepe is located near the village of Örencik in Şanliurfa Province, within the Taş Tepeler, or "Stone Hills," in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains. It overlooks the Harran plain and the headwaters of the Balikh River, which flows into the Euphrates. The site is a tell, or artificial mound, built on a flat limestone plateau. In the north, a narrow landform connects the plateau to nearby mountains. The land slopes steeply downward into cliffs and slopes in all other directions.

When Göbekli Tepe was occupied, the area had more rainfall than it does today. The site was surrounded by open grasslands with plenty of wild cereals, such as einkorn, wheat, and barley, and large herds of grazing animals, including wild sheep, wild goats, gazelle, and equids. Many goitered gazelle may have passed near the site during seasonal migrations. There is no evidence of large forests nearby; 90% of the charcoal found at the site came from pistachio or almond trees.

Like most Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) sites in the Urfa region, Göbekli Tepe was built on a high point near the mountains, offering a wide view of the plain below and good visibility from the plain. This location also provided access to building materials, such as soft limestone from the bedrock and flint for tools. The prehistoric people collected drinking water using a rainwater harvesting system. This system included carved channels that directed water into cisterns carved into the bedrock beneath the site, which could hold at least 150 cubic meters (5,300 cubic feet) of water. The local water table may have been higher, allowing springs near the site to flow, which are now dry.

Archaeologists have excavated the southern slope of the tell, as well as areas to the south and west of a mulberry tree near an Islamic pilgrimage site. However, archaeological finds have been discovered across the entire plateau. Many tools remain at the site. At the western edge of the plateau, a small cave was found, and a small carving of a bovid (a type of hoofed animal) was discovered inside. This is the only relief found in that cave.

Dawn of village life

Göbekli Tepe was built and used during the earliest part of the Southwest Asian Neolithic period, called the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN, about 9600 to 7000 BCE). This time began at the end of the last Ice Age and marks the start of village life. It provides the earliest known evidence of permanent human settlements. One of the earliest sites is Körtik Tepe, dated to 10,700–9250 BCE, which may have influenced the artistic and material culture of later PPN sites, including Göbekli Tepe and other Taş Tepeler locations.

Archaeologists have linked the rise of these settlements to the Neolithic Revolution, a time when humans shifted from hunting and gathering to farming. However, they disagree about whether farming led to permanent homes or if living in one place encouraged farming. The Neolithic Revolution in Southwest Asia was not sudden or the same everywhere. Some village-like features appeared thousands of years before the Neolithic, and the move to farming happened slowly over many years in different areas. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic is divided into two main time periods: Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA, about 9600–8800 BCE) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB, about 8800–7000 BCE). The earliest layers at Göbekli Tepe date to the PPNA, while later layers belong to the PPNB.

Evidence suggests the people who lived at Göbekli Tepe were hunter-gatherers who also grew and ate early types of domesticated grains. They lived in villages for part of the year. Tools like grinding stones, mortars, and pestles found at the site show that they processed large amounts of grain. Animal remains suggest that they hunted gazelle between midsummer and autumn.

PPN villages were mostly made up of groups of stone or mud-brick homes, but some had large buildings and monuments. These include the tower and walls at Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) and large circular structures at Göbekli Tepe, Nevalı Çori, Çayönü, Wadi Feynan 16, Jerf el-Ahmar, Tell 'Abr 3, and Tepe Asiab. These buildings are often linked to activities that the community did together. Building them required teamwork, which helped keep people connected as their groups grew.

The T-shaped pillars found at Göbekli Tepe are unique to the Urfa region but appear at most PPN sites, such as Nevalı Çori, Hamzan Tepe, Karahan Tepe, Harbetsuvan Tepesi, Sefer Tepe, and Taslı Tepe. Other stone monuments without T-shaped designs have been found at nearby sites like Çayönü, Qermez Dere, and Gusir Höyük.

Chronology

Radiocarbon dating shows that the earliest structures at Göbekli Tepe were built between 9500 and 9000 BCE, during the end of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) period. The site was greatly expanded in the early 9th millennium BCE and remained in use until about 8000 BCE, or possibly slightly later (the early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, PPNB). Evidence suggests that smaller groups later lived among the ruins after the Neolithic buildings were abandoned.

Schmidt originally dated the site to the PPNA based on the types of stone tools found there, considering a PPNA date "most probable." Determining the site's exact timeline took longer because of challenges in the methods used. The first two radiocarbon dates, published in 1998, showed that materials from the structure’s fill dated to the late 10th and early 9th millennium BCE—500 to 1,000 years later than expected for a PPNA site. Schmidt’s team explained this difference by suggesting the material was brought to the site from elsewhere when it was abandoned and did not reflect the actual use of the structures. Instead, they used a new method to date organic material preserved in the plaster on the walls, which produced dates more consistent with a PPNA occupation, around the middle or early 10th millennium BCE. Later research revised Schmidt’s timeline, rejecting the idea that fill material came from elsewhere and recognizing that plaster dates are affected by the "old wood effect." With new radiocarbon dates, the site’s timeline is now confirmed to be between 9500 and 8000 BCE—the late PPNA and PPNB periods.

Schmidt’s initial model divided the site into three architectural layers. The large circular enclosures were assigned to Layer III, dated to the 10th millennium BCE (PPNA). Smaller rectangular structures and the site’s abandonment were placed in Layer II, dated to the 9th millennium BCE (early to middle PPNB). Layer I included all post-Neolithic activities up to the modern surface.

The revised timeline includes eight phases spanning at least 1,500 years. It details the history of the large circular enclosures, including events that led to their changes or abandonment, and the development of surrounding domestic buildings.

• Phase 1: The earliest settlement phase dates to the second half of the 10th millennium BCE. It includes the first versions of enclosures A to D and round-oval domestic structures, suggesting a (semi) sedentary lifestyle.
• Phase 2: In the early 9th millennium BCE, enclosures A–D were significantly modified. New walls were built, including the first monolithic T-shaped pillars. More domestic structures were added, mostly oval-round, though some began to have rectangular floor plans.
• Phases 3–5: During the early PPNB, rectangular domestic structures were built on the northern and western slopes. These structures went through multiple construction phases, such as adding benches with T-shaped pillars and new inner walls, creating more rectangular rooms. The large enclosures were also modified, with walls repaired and new ones added. Benches were placed against the interior sides of Phase 2 walls. By the end of the early PPNB, a slope slide caused flooding in lower areas, washing sediments and domestic debris (likely including waste and burials) downhill. This damaged enclosure D and led to stabilization efforts in Phase 5. Building C was rebuilt for the last time, and a terrace wall was placed above it to prevent future slope slides. However, a second major slope slide likely caused enclosure D to be abandoned by the late 9th millennium BCE.
• Phases 6 and 7: Building activity decreased during Phases 6 and 7 (late 9th to early 8th millennium BCE). The loss of enclosures B and D may have led to the construction of building G and the "Lion Pillar Building." In Phase 7, another terrace wall was built to stabilize the northern slope.
• Phase 8: In the final occupation period, small living structures were built within the remains of the abandoned Neolithic village.

Architecture

The first circular buildings appeared around 9000 BCE. These structures range from 10 to 30 meters (33 to 98 feet) in diameter. Their most noticeable feature is T-shaped pillars made of limestone, placed evenly inside thick walls of unworked stone. Four of these circular buildings have been found so far. Surveys using special equipment suggest there may be 16 more, each with up to eight pillars, totaling nearly 200. The stone slabs were moved from pits in the bedrock about 100 meters (330 feet) away from the hilltop. Workers used flint tools to cut through the limestone. These pillars are the oldest known megaliths in the world.

In the center of each circle, two taller pillars face each other. It is not clear if the circles had a roof. Stone benches for sitting are found inside. Many pillars have abstract, mysterious symbols and carved images of animals. These symbols may represent sacred signs seen in Neolithic cave paintings. The carvings show mammals like lions, bulls, boars, foxes, gazelles, and donkeys; snakes and reptiles; insects and spiders; and birds, especially vultures. Vultures also appear in art from Çatalhöyük and Jericho.

Few human figures appear in the art at Göbekli Tepe. Some T-shaped pillars have human arms carved on their lower parts. This led the site’s excavator, Schmidt, to believe they might represent stylized humans or deities. Some pillars show loincloths on their lower parts. Schmidt thought the flat stone on top of the pillars represented shoulders, suggesting the figures were headless. It is unknown if these figures were meant to represent worshippers, ancestors, or supernatural beings.

Some floors in the oldest layer are made of terrazzo (burnt lime); others are made from the bedrock, which holds the large central pillars carved in high relief. Radiocarbon dating shows these early circles were built around 9000 BCE.

Later buildings were rectangular, possibly to use space more efficiently than circular ones. These structures are linked to the Neolithic period, but the T-shaped pillars, a feature of older buildings, also appear here. This suggests the buildings continued to serve the same purpose during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) period. Rooms in these later buildings have polished lime floors similar to Roman terrazzo floors. Carbon dating places their construction between 8800 and 8000 BCE. Some T-shaped pillars, up to 1.5 meters tall, stand in the center of these rooms. A pair decorated with lions is why this area is called the "lion pillar building."

• Enclosure B
• Enclosure C
• Enclosure F

In the earliest phase of occupation, round or oval homes were built next to the large enclosures, showing people lived there part-time. Over time, these homes became more rectangular. In the final stage, only small buildings were built.

Before human remains were found, Schmidt thought graves might have been placed in niches behind the walls of the circular buildings. In 2017, pieces of human skulls with cuts were found, linked to a Neolithic practice of preserving skulls. This practice, such as plastering skulls, is known from sites like Jericho, Tell Aswad, and Çatalhöyük.

At the western edge of the hill, a lion-like figure was discovered. Flint and limestone fragments are common here, suggesting this area might have been a sculpture workshop. Three phallic carvings found on the southern plateau are harder to classify, as they are near classical-era quarries, making their age unclear.

Besides the main hill, there is a flat platform with two sockets that could have held pillars, surrounded by a bench. This platform is part of the oldest layers of the site and is called "Complex E." It resembles the religious buildings at Nevalı Çori, so it is also called the "Temple of the Rock." Its floor was carved from bedrock and smoothed, like the terrazzo floors of later buildings. Nearby are two pit-like structures believed to be part of Complex E. One has a table-high pin and a staircase with five steps.

Construction

The plateau where Göbekli Tepe is located has been shaped by erosion and quarrying since the Neolithic period. On the southern part of the plateau, there are four channels that are 10 meters long and 20 centimeters wide. These are believed to be the remains of an ancient quarry used to extract rectangular stone blocks. These blocks may have been used in a nearby square building, the foundation of which still exists. This building might be the remains of a Roman watchtower that was part of the Limes Arabicus. Most structures on the plateau are thought to have resulted from Neolithic quarrying, as the quarries provided large, monolithic stone blocks. The shapes of these blocks were carved into the rock, and then the blocks were pulled out of the rock bank.

Archaeologists disagree about how much labor was needed to build the site. Schmidt argued that "the work of quarrying, transporting, and erecting heavy, monolithic, and well-prepared limestone pillars […] was not possible for just a few people." Using experiments with the moai statues of Rapa Nui as a reference, he estimated that moving the pillars alone would have required hundreds of people. According to these experiments, carving a moai of similar size to a T-shaped pillar from Göbekli Tepe would have taken 20 people a year, and transporting it 15 kilometers would have required 50–75 people a week. Schmidt’s team also cited a 1917 account of building a megalith on the Indonesian island of Nias, which required 525 people to complete in three days. These estimates support the idea that the site was built by a large, non-resident workforce, either forced or encouraged by a small religious group. However, others believe that 7–14 people could have moved the pillars using ropes and water or another lubricant, similar to techniques used for other monuments like Stonehenge. Experiments at Göbekli Tepe itself suggest that all the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) structures exposed could have been built by 12–24 people in less than four months, including time for quarrying, gathering food, and preparing meals. These estimates are considered achievable by a single extended family or village community during the Neolithic period. They also match the number of people who could have fit inside one of the buildings at the same time.

Enclosures B, C, and D were originally planned as a single, hierarchical complex that forms an equilateral triangle, according to Haklay and Gopher.

The enclosures, located more than 10 meters below the highest areas of the settlement, experienced several landslides during the time Göbekli Tepe was occupied. A major landslide occurred at the end of the early PPNB period, burying enclosure D under rubble from domestic buildings, sediments, and burial remains. This caused significant damage to the enclosure, requiring repairs and stabilization efforts. Later, during Building Phase 5, terrace walls were built to prevent future landslides. However, these efforts failed when a second major landslide likely caused the enclosure to be abandoned during Building Phase 6, around the late 9th millennium BCE. Other enclosures suffered similar damage, possibly leading to the construction of new enclosures to replace them.

Previously, it was believed that the large enclosures were intentionally filled with dirt, but this idea is no longer widely accepted since the death of Klaus Schmidt.

Tools

Göbekli Tepe is covered with flint artifacts, found from the ridge-top area to the slopes. The collection of tools discovered is similar to those at other Northern Levantine Pre-Pottery Neolithic settlement sites.

In 1963, over 3,000 Neolithic tools were uncovered. Most were high-quality flint, with only a few made of obsidian. Common tool types included cores, blades, flakes, scrapers, burins, and projectile points.

Excavations of Space 16, a small building near enclosure D, uncovered nearly 700 tools. The most common were tools that had been sharpened or shaped, followed by scrapers, tools with holes, and items with a shiny surface. Strong tools, burins, and small stone tools were also found.

More than 7,000 grinding stones have been found, used throughout the site’s history. These stones are believed to have been used to process cereal, based on tiny plant remains found in the soil. However, it is unclear whether the cereal was wild or cultivated.

Iconography

The stone pillars in the enclosures at Göbekli Tepe are shaped like a letter T, similar to those found at other early Neolithic sites in the region. However, unlike these other sites, many pillars at Göbekli Tepe are carved. These carvings are usually in low relief, but sometimes in high relief. Most carvings show animals, such as snakes, foxes, and wild boars, as well as gazelles, wild sheep, onagers, ducks, and vultures. When possible, the animals are identified as male and often shown in aggressive poses.

Other carvings include abstract shapes, such as H-shaped symbols, crescents, and disks. Human figures are rarely shown, but one example is a headless man with an erect phallus on pillar 43 in enclosure D. Other phallic figures have been found at Göbekli Tepe and nearby sites. The T-shape of the pillars is similar to human figures, with the vertical part representing the body and the top representing the head. Some pillars also show carvings of arms, hands, and loincloths.

The two central pillars in each enclosure held special importance in the symbolic design. In enclosure D, these pillars show human figures with arms, belts, and cloth covering the genitals. The sex of these figures is not clear, but some researchers believe they may be men because the belts are a male feature from that time. Only one certain image of a woman has been found, showing a naked figure on a stone slab.

Schmidt and a zooarchaeologist named Joris Peters believe the variety of animals on the pillars suggests they do not all share the same meaning. They suggest that because many animals shown are predators, the carvings might have been used for magical purposes to protect against harm or as symbols of groups.

Examples of carvings on pillars include:
– Pillar 10, Enclosure B: a fox
– Pillar 12, Enclosure C: ducks and a boar
– Pillar 27, Enclosure C: a predator (possibly a cat) hunting a boar
– Pillar 43, Enclosure D: a stone with vultures

Smaller carved stones found at Göbekli Tepe are often hard to date. These stones have similar carvings to the pillars, mostly showing animals and sometimes humans, mostly male. Examples include:
– A stone with an animal (possibly a reptile, cat, or wolverine) carved in high relief
– A boar statue with legs
– A boar statue without legs
– A carved totem with human figures
– A statue of a man with an erect penis

One structure contained a "totem pole" from the early PPNB period. When reassembled, it is 192 centimeters (6.30 feet) tall and 30 centimeters (0.98 feet) wide. It shows three figures (from top to bottom): a predator (a bear or large cat) missing its head and with human arms; another figure missing its head and with human arms, likely male; and a third figure with a complete head. Snakes are carved on both sides of the totem pole.

Interpretation

Klaus Schmidt believed that Göbekli Tepe was a place used for religious or ceremonial purposes. He proposed that groups of people who lived in small, wandering communities across the area might have gathered on the hilltop to work together on building projects, share large meals, and then return to their separate lives.

Many bones from local animals, such as deer, gazelle, pigs, and geese, were found at the site. These bones were likely from food that was hunted, cooked, or otherwise prepared for people who visited the site. Studies of these bones show that gazelle were only in the region during certain seasons, which suggests that events like feasts and rituals may have happened when these animals were most available. Schmidt thought that the construction of Göbekli Tepe played a role in the later development of cities and organized societies.

Schmidt also considered the beliefs of the people who built Göbekli Tepe by comparing it to other ancient shrines and settlements. He believed that spiritual practices, such as those involving shamans, were important. He suggested that the T-shaped pillars at the site might represent human figures, possibly ancestors. However, he believed that the idea of gods with names and temples did not appear until later, in Mesopotamia, where large temples and palaces were built. This idea matches an ancient Sumerian story that claimed agriculture, animal care, and weaving were gifts from the sacred mountain Ekur, home to the Annuna, ancient gods without individual names. Schmidt thought this story was a memory of early Neolithic times. The carvings on the pillars do not show signs of violence, such as hunting attacks or injured animals. Instead, they often feature powerful creatures like lions, snakes, spiders, and scorpions, rather than animals the society relied on, such as deer. Some scholars believe that the circular structures at Göbekli Tepe might have been places of worship, while others think the carvings could represent a map connecting the local community to the land and the universe.

The idea that Göbekli Tepe was used only for religious purposes and not for living has been questioned. Some researchers suggest that the structures might have been large communal homes, similar to the big wooden houses of the Northwest Coast of North America, which had tall posts and totem poles. It is unclear why the pillars were buried every few decades and replaced with new stones in smaller, circular patterns inside the older ones. Rémi Hadad noted that recent research is shifting away from the idea that Göbekli Tepe was a central place for religious gatherings and instead suggests that both religious and everyday activities may have taken place there. For example, the discovery of homes and systems for collecting rainwater has led to a rethinking of the site's original purpose as a "temple."

Some people have claimed that Göbekli Tepe was an ancient observatory for studying the stars, but the team working at the site has mostly dismissed these claims.

Research history

Before archaeologists studied it, the hill where Göbekli Tepe is located was known locally in Kurdish as Girê Mirazan or Xerabreşkê. Girê Mirazan means "Wish Hill."

The site was first noticed in 1963 during an archaeological survey led by Halet Çambel of Istanbul University and Robert John Braidwood of the University of Chicago. American archaeologist Peter Benedict examined stone tools found on the site and identified them as typical of the Aceramic Neolithic period. However, he incorrectly believed the top parts of the T-shaped pillars were grave markers. The hill had been farmed for many years, and local people had often moved rocks and placed them in piles, which might have disturbed the top layers of the site. At some point, farmers broke parts of the pillars, likely thinking they were just large rocks.

In October 1994, German archaeologist Klaus Schmidt, who had previously worked at Nevalı Çori, decided to re-examine the location described by the Chicago researchers in 1963. He asked nearby villagers about hills with flint and was directed to Göbekli Tepe by Mahmut Yıldız, whose family owned the land. The Yıldız family had found artifacts while farming there and reported them to the local museum. Schmidt, having seen similar structures at Nevalı Çori, realized the stone slabs might not be grave markers, as Benedict had thought, but instead the tops of ancient megaliths. He began excavations the next year and uncovered the first large T-shaped pillars. Eventually, he found only three tombs on the easternmost hill group, which was a place for pilgrimage. Yıldız later worked on the excavations and became the site’s guard.

Schmidt led excavations at the site for the Şanlıurfa Museum and the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) until his death in 2014. Since then, Lee Clare has coordinated research for the DAI. As of 2021, the site is studied jointly by Istanbul University, the Şanlıurfa Museum, and the DAI, with Necmi Karul overseeing the work. Recent excavations have focused on carefully documenting and preserving already exposed areas, rather than expanding the work as Schmidt had done.

Conservation

Göbekli Tepe was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2018 because it is considered one of the earliest examples of human-made large structures. By 2021, about 10% of the site had been explored.

In 2018, a disagreement arose during preservation efforts at the site. Çiğdem Köksal Schmidt, an archaeologist and wife of Klaus Schmidt, claimed that damage occurred due to the use of concrete and heavy machinery while building a new path. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism stated that concrete was not used and that no damage had taken place.