Dougga, also known as Thugga or TBGG (Arabic: دقة, romanized: Duqqah; Tunisian Arabic: دڨة, romanized: Dugga), was a settlement inhabited by the Berber, Punic, and Roman people near the modern town of Téboursouk in northern Tunisia. The archaeological site covers an area of 75 hectares (190 acres). In 1997, UNESCO recognized Dougga as a World Heritage Site because it is considered "the best-preserved Roman small town in North Africa." The site is located in the countryside and has remained largely untouched by modern cities, unlike places such as Carthage, which has been damaged and rebuilt many times. Dougga is special because of its size, well-preserved buildings, and history that includes the Numidian, Berber, Punic, Roman, and Byzantine periods. Some of the most famous structures found there include a Libyco-Punic Mausoleum, the Capitol, the Roman theatre, and the temples of Saturn and Juno Caelestis.

Names

The Numidian name of the settlement was written in the Libyco-Berber alphabet as TBGG. The Punic name of the settlement is written as tbgg ( 𐤕𐤁‬𐤂‬𐤂‬ ) and tbgʿg ( 𐤕𐤁‬𐤂𐤏‬𐤂 ). In the Phoenician language, the root B GG means "in the roof terrace." Camps suggests this might come from a Berber word based on the root tbg, which means "to protect." This likely refers to the location of the site on a high, easily defended plateau. The name was later used in Latin as Thugga. After receiving "free status," the settlement was officially renamed Municipium Septimium Aurelium Liberum Thugga. "Septimium" and "Aurelium" refer to the town's founders, Septimius Severus and M. Aurelius Antoninus (also known as Caracalla). For more about "liberum," see below. When Dougga became a Roman colony, it was formally called Colonia Licinia Septimia Aurelia Alexandriana Thuggensis.

In modern Berber, the settlement is known as Dugga or Tugga. These names were later used in Arabic as دڨة or دقة. The name "Dougga" is a French version of the Arabic name.

Location

The archaeological site is located 4.6 km (2.9 mi) southwest of the modern town of Téboursouk on a plateau that provides a clear view of the surrounding plains in the Oued Khalled area. The site has good natural protection, which explains why it was occupied early in history. The land where Dougga is built slopes upward to the north and is bordered by a cliff called Kef Dougga on the east. To the east of this cliff, there is a ridge known as the Fossa Regia, a ditch and boundary built by the Romans after Carthage was destroyed. This feature shows that Dougga was a place where Punic and Berber people met.

History

Dougga is most famous for its history during the Roman conquest. However, many pre-Roman monuments, like a large burial site and temples, have been found through archaeological digs. These monuments show that the site was important before the Romans arrived.

The city was likely founded in the 6th century BC. Some historians think Dougga is the same as Tocae, a city described by Diodorus of Sicily as "a city of beautiful grandeur." Tocae was captured by a lieutenant of Agathocles of Syracuse in the 4th century BC.

Dougga was an early and important human settlement. Evidence of its urban character includes a burial site with ancient stone structures, a sanctuary for Ba'al Hammon, carved stone markers, a tomb, and a temple dedicated to Masinissa. These were found during archaeological excavations. Even though we know little about the city before the Romans arrived, recent discoveries have changed our understanding of this time.

A temple to Masinissa, built in 139 BC, was found beneath the city’s main square. This disproved a theory that the Numidian city was separate from the later Roman settlement. The temple measures 14 meters by 6.3 meters. It shows that the area around the square was already built upon before the Romans arrived. A nearby building from the 2nd century BC also supports this. The city’s tomb is not alone but is part of a larger burial site.

Recent findings have shown that the walls around Dougga are not Numidian. They were built much later, during late antiquity. Excavations also revealed that two structures once thought to be Numidian towers were actually funeral monuments from the Numidian era, later reused as part of the city’s defenses.

The discovery of inscriptions in Libyan and Punic languages led to debates about Dougga’s administration during the Numidian Kingdom. Some believed the city still had Punic influence, while others thought it had become more Berber. Although Berber institutions emerged during the Numidian period, Punic officials, called shofets, remained active in Dougga during the Roman era. This suggests Punic influence continued even after Carthage fell.

After the Romans conquered the region, Dougga was given the status of an independent city. The creation of the Roman colony of Carthage under Augustus complicated Dougga’s status. The city was part of Carthage’s territory, but a separate Roman settlement also developed nearby. For two centuries, Dougga was governed by two groups: the city’s residents, who were not Roman citizens, and the Roman colonists. Both groups had their own leaders and councils. Evidence also shows that a Punic-style leadership system, the sufetes, remained active in Dougga for a long time.

Over time, the two communities in Dougga became more similar. Many non-Roman residents adopted Roman customs and eventually became citizens. Their councils began making decisions together. This was helped by their close location and later by shared governance. During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, Dougga was granted Roman law, giving its leaders automatic citizenship. Later, the Roman settlement gained some independence from Carthage, allowing it to manage its own funds.

Dougga officially became a single city, called a municipium, in AD 205 during the reign of Septimius Severus. The city’s wealthy families supported its growth, and its leaders successfully appealed to emperors for help. Dougga reached its peak during the reign of Gallienus, when it became a Roman colony.

Dougga’s monuments show it was prosperous from the time of Diocletian to Theodosius I. However, the city declined in the 4th century, as shown by limited remains of early Christian structures. During the Byzantine era, the area around the city’s main square was turned into a fort, and some buildings were destroyed for materials.

Dougga was never completely abandoned after Muslim invasions. A small village remained on the site, with descendants of the ancient people living there. Evidence includes a small mosque in the Temple of August Piety and a bathhouse from the Aghlabid period.

European visitors first described Dougga’s ruins in the 17th century. This continued into the 18th and 19th centuries. The best-preserved monuments, like the tomb, were studied during this time.

After France took control of Tunisia in 1881, an institute was created to protect ancient sites. Dougga was a priority for excavations, starting in 1901. Work focused on the city’s main square and continued until 1939. Restoration efforts included rebuilding parts of the capitol and the tomb.

After Tunisia gained independence, more buildings were studied, including the Temple of Caracalla’s Victory. The last residents of Dougga were moved to a new village called New Dougga. In 1991, the site became a national archaeological park. A scientific program now focuses on studying inscriptions and pagan temples. Dougga was added to UNESCO’s World Heritage list in 1997.

Despite its importance and well-preserved ruins, Dougga is not a popular tourist destination. It receives about 50,000 visitors each year.

Dougga's "Liberty"

From AD 205, when the city (civitas) and surrounding area (pagus) became a single municipality (municipium), Dougga was given the title "liberum." The meaning of this term is not immediately clear. The word "liberum" also appears in the names of other municipalities founded at the same time, such as Thibursicum Bure, Aulodes, and Thysdrus. Some scholars, like Merlin and Poinssot, suggest that "liberum" comes from the name of the god Liber, for whom a temple was built in Dougga. This idea is similar to how other towns, like Thibursicum Bure, used names linked to gods. However, other municipalities with "liberum" in their names do not mention gods, so this theory is no longer widely accepted. Another idea is that "liberum" refers to "freedom" (libertas). This is supported by an inscription in Dougga that calls Emperor Alexander Severus the "preserver of liberty" (conservator libertatis).

It is unclear exactly what kind of freedom this was. Some scholars, like Toutain, believe it describes a special type of municipality where Roman governors could not control local officials. However, there is no proof that Dougga had the same legal rights as other free cities, such as Aphrodisias in Asia Minor. Veyne suggests that "freedom" here is more symbolic, representing the city’s independence from subjugation and its ability to celebrate "liberty" as a concept. The emperor Probus is called the "preserver of liberty and dignity" (conservator libertatis et dignitatis). Gascou agrees, noting that Dougga likely used "liberum" to express pride in finally gaining the status of a municipium.

More recent studies, such as those by Lepelley, argue that "liberum" may relate to Dougga’s relationship with Rome and its unique privileges. The region of Carthage, which included Dougga’s surrounding area (pagus) before AD 205, had special rights, such as tax exemptions (immunitas perticae Carthaginiensium). When the city (civitas) and surrounding area merged, Dougga’s citizens might have lost these benefits. Lepelley suggests that the "freedom" of municipia founded during Emperor Septimius Severus’s reign could refer to tax exemptions made possible by the region’s wealth and the emperor’s generosity. During Emperor Gallienus’s reign, a local leader named Aulus Vitellius Felix Honoratus appealed to the emperor to "assure the public liberty," which Lepelley sees as evidence that Dougga’s privileges were at risk. An inscription honoring Emperor Probus as "defender of its liberty" suggests the city may have retained some rights.

Christol disagrees, arguing that the term "libertas" should not be limited to legal privileges. He believes the decision to grant Dougga the title "liberum" in AD 205 was a response to a request from the city’s people and reflected existing relationships between the civitas and pagus. The civitas had already gained some autonomy during Emperor Marcus Aurelius’s reign, which may have caused unease among the pagus’s residents. This tension might explain why the pagus honored Emperor Commodus as the "protector of the community" (conservator pagi).

For Christol, "liberum" should be understood in this broader context. The term represents the end of the civitas’s dependence and the elevation of a group of non-citizens (peregrini) to Roman citizenship, which helped ease fears in the pagus and paved the way for future recognition, such as becoming a colony. This promotion occurred in AD 261 under Emperor Gallienus, following an appeal by Aulus Vitellius Felix Honoratus. Afterward, defending "public liberty" (libertas publica) was not about protecting existing rights but seeking the "ultimate liberty" (summa libertas)—the status of a colony. Christol notes that while terms like "libertas" and "dignitas" are abstract, their use in official titles likely reflects real historical events.

General layout

The city as it exists today is mostly made up of remains from the Roman era, especially from the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Roman builders had to consider the rough and rocky ground. They also had to work around older buildings already there. This led them to change the usual layout of Roman settlements, as seen in places like Timgad.

Recent archaeological digs have shown that the city's development continued over time. The center of the city has always been at the top of a hill, where the forum replaced an earlier Numidian marketplace. As Dougga grew, buildings were built on the sides of the hill. This made the city look like a tightly packed group of structures, according to Hédi Slim.

Early archaeological work focused on public buildings, which meant private homes were often found at the ends of trenches dug for this purpose. Later, trenches were made specifically to uncover private homes that had unique features.

Traces of a house from the Numidian era were found in the base of a temple dedicated to Liber. These traces, though faint, proved that Roman and earlier settlements were not on separate areas. Instead, they overlapped.

This house, from the 2nd or 3rd century, is located downhill from the areas around the forum and main public buildings. It is in a part of the city with winding streets.

The trifolium villa, named for a room shaped like a clover that was used as a triclinium, is the largest private home found so far at Dougga. The house had two floors, but most of the upper floor is gone. It is in the southern part of the city, halfway up the hill. The house is special because it was built to follow the natural shape of the land. The entrance slopes down to a courtyard, with rooms arranged around it.

The market was built in the middle of the 1st century. It was a square area 35.5 meters by 28 meters (116 feet by 92 feet), surrounded by a portico and shops on two sides. The northern side had a portico, while the southern side had an exedra, which likely held a statue of Mercury.

To fix the natural slope of the ground where the market was built, workers did major earthwork. These changes are among the oldest Roman constructions. Their direction relative to the forum suggests they were not built on older structures. However, the market’s remains near the forum do not mean the two were connected. The market was mostly destroyed during the building of a Byzantine fort and was uncovered in 1918–1919.

The Licinian Baths are notable because much of their original walls remain. They also have a long tunnel used by slaves who worked there. The baths were given to the city by the Licinii family in the 3rd century. They were mainly used as winter baths. The frigidarium has three rows of arches at both ends and large windows offering views of the valley beyond.

Funerary structures

The presence of dolmens in North Africa has led to arguments among historians about their origins and purposes. At the site of Dougga, archaeologists have studied these structures and found skeletons and ceramic models nearby.

It is difficult to determine exactly when the dolmens were built because they were used for a long time, even until the time Christianity began. However, they are believed to be at least 2,000 years old. Gabriel Camps has suggested that these dolmens may be connected to similar structures in Sicily. He has also proposed a link between the dolmens and the "haouanet" tombs found in Algeria and Tunisia.

A unique type of tomb, called bazina tombs or circular monument tombs, has been discovered at Dougga. These are specific to the Numidian people.

The Mausoleum of Ateban is one of the few examples of royal Numidian architecture. Another similar structure exists in Sabratha, Libya. Some scholars believe this tomb may share similarities with funeral buildings in Anatolia and the necropoleis (burial areas) in Alexandria from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.

This tomb is 21 meters (69 feet) tall and was built in the 2nd century BC. A bilingual inscription inside the mausoleum stated that it was dedicated to Ateban, the son of Iepmatath and Palu. In 1842, Sir Thomas Reade, a British official in Tunis, damaged the monument while removing the inscription. This inscription, written in Punic and Libyan, is now in the British Museum and helped scholars understand the Libyan writing system. Recent research shows that the names in the inscription belong to the architect and workers who built the tomb. The monument was constructed by the people of the city for a Numidian prince, possibly Massinissa.

The current appearance of the tomb is due to the work of French archaeologist Louis Poinssot, who rebuilt it using pieces found on the ground. Visitors enter the tomb through a pedestal with five steps. On the northern side of the base, there is an opening to the funeral chamber, which is sealed with a stone slab. Other sides have fake windows and four Aeolic pilasters. The second level includes a colonnade (a row of columns) with Ionic-style columns. The top level is the most decorated, featuring pilasters and a pyramid-shaped roof. Some carved stone details remain.

Although some efforts have been made to study Roman tombs in the area, many are now partially covered by olive trees.

The necropoleis at Dougga mark the burial areas of the city. Five distinct zones have been identified: one in the northeast near the Temple of Saturn and Victoria Church, one in the northwest that includes the dolmens, one in the west between cisterns and near the Temple of Juno Caelestis, and two in the south and southeast—one near the mausoleum and the other near Septimius Severus' triumphal arch.

The hypogeum is a partially buried building from the 3rd century. It was built in the oldest necropolis, which was excavated in 1913. The hypogeum had niches in its walls to hold funeral urns. When it was discovered, it contained sarcophagi, showing it was used for many years.

Political monuments

Dougga still has two triumphal arches, which are in different conditions.

The arch of Septimius Severus, which is heavily damaged, is near the mausoleum and along the path from Carthage to Théveste. It was built in AD 205.

The arch of Alexander Severus, built between 222 and 235, is mostly intact, even though it has lost its top parts. It is the same distance from the capitol and the Temple of Juno Caelestis. The archway is 4 meters (13 feet) tall.

A third triumphal arch, from the Tetrarchy period, has been completely destroyed.

The city forum, which is 924 square meters in size, is small. Some parts are better preserved than others because a Byzantine fort damaged a large section of it. The capitol, which is surrounded by porticos, stands out because of its large size. The "Square of the Rose of the Winds" (named after a decorative element) looks more like a path leading to the Temple of Mercury, which is on its north side. The city's meeting hall and a place for speeches were likely here too.

Long ago, archaeologists thought the Roman settlement at Dougga began suddenly. This idea was proven wrong when a sanctuary dedicated to Massinissa was found among the structures behind the capitol.

Recreational facilities

Roman theatres were an important part of a city's appearance during the time of Augustus. The theatre built in AD 168 or 169 is one of the best-preserved examples in Roman Africa. It could seat 3,500 people, even though Dougga had only about 5,000 residents. This theatre was one of many imperial buildings built over two centuries in Dougga. These buildings were adapted to fit the local landscape, with only small changes made to their designs. Local architects had some freedom in how they decorated the buildings.

A message carved on the stage’s front and on the portico (a covered walkway) honors P. Marcius Quadratus, the person who built the theatre. He used his own money to fund the project. The dedication was celebrated with plays, food distributions, festivals, and athletic competitions.

The theatre is still used for performances, especially during the Dougga festival. Restoration work has been done to preserve it.

The site called the auditorium is part of the Temple of Liber. It may have been used for training new members of a group. Though it is now called an auditorium, it was not used for performances. It measures 20 meters by 20 meters (about 66 feet by 66 feet).

Dougga had a circus for chariot racing, but it is barely visible today. Originally, the circus was just a field. An inscription in a temple mentions that the land was donated by the Gabinii family in 214 AD and called an ager qui appellatur circus (a field used as a circus). In 225 AD, the circus was built after magistrates (duumviri and aedile) promised to do so following a request from the city’s people. The circus was designed to use the natural landscape to save costs, as Dougga had limited resources. It was also built quickly because magistrates had only one year to complete their work. The circus was large, 393 meters (1,289 feet) long, with a central track (spina) 190 meters by 6 meters (623 feet by 20 feet). This made it one of the most significant circuses in Roman Africa, showing Dougga’s importance alongside cities like Carthage and Leptis Magna. The circus’s construction and its purpose to please the public highlight the value of public entertainment in Roman cities.

It is not certain whether Dougga had an amphitheater. A large elliptical depression near the site was once thought to be an amphitheater, but archaeologists now believe this is unlikely.

Three Roman baths have been fully uncovered at Dougga, and a fourth has only been partially explored. One of these baths, called the "bath of the house to the west of the Temple of Tellus," was part of a private home. Two others, the Aïn Doura bath and the "Licinian bath," were likely public. The fourth bath, the "bath of the Cyclopses," is harder to classify.

During the excavation of the Cyclopses bath, a mosaic showing cyclopses forging Jupiter’s thunderbolts was found. This mosaic is now displayed at the Bardo National Museum, along with well-preserved latrines. The building dates to the 3rd century CE based on the mosaic.

The small size of the Cyclopses bath (its frigidarium, or cold room, is less than 30 square meters) has led some experts to think it was private. However, nearby ruins are unclear, and Yvon Thébert suggests it may have served a local neighborhood.

The Antonian Bath, built in the 3rd century, was once called the Licinian Baths after Emperor Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus. It had multiple levels. Earlier claims that it was built during Gallienus’s reign have been questioned by recent research, which suggests it may have been built during the rule of Caracalla. Some also think it dates to the Severan dynasty due to architectural features.

Later, the bath was used to produce olive oil, though the exact time is unknown.

The bath is medium-sized, covering 1,700 square meters (excluding the palaestra, or exercise area). The frigidarium alone is 175 square meters. The building required work to level the slope it was built on, which may explain why some parts are better preserved than others.

Near Aïn Doura is a partially uncovered complex that might be the city’s largest bath, the Aïn Doura Baths. Mosaics found there suggest the bath dates to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, with decorations renewed in the 4th century.

The complex is mostly unexcavated, but Yvon Thébert believes it has a symmetrical design. Only part of the cold rooms has been uncovered.

The Aïn Doura Bath, measuring 75 square meters, was discovered in the early 20th century. It can be accessed from a nearby house and from the street. Yvon Thébert believes the bath was added later to the original structure, but the exact date is unknown.

Religious edifices

There is written and archaeological evidence showing more than twenty temples in Dougga. This is a large number for a small city. Eleven temples have clear remains and inscriptions. Eight more have remains, and fourteen are mentioned in inscriptions. This many religious sites is partly because wealthy families supported their construction.

The Temple of Massinissa is on the western side of the city. Early archaeologists thought the temple ruins were a fountain. However, an inscription found in 1904 proved it was a sanctuary for the dead Numidian king. The inscription dates to 139 BC, during the rule of Micipsa.

The temple’s remains are similar to those in Chemtou. This shows the political center of the Roman city was where the Hellenic agora was. Stone remains in this area seem to belong to several structures. The exact location of the sanctuary is still debated.

Some believe the sanctuary treated Massinissa like a god. However, experts disagree. Gsell thinks a temple to the king continued eastern and Hellenic traditions. Camps argues that no ancient sources show anything more than respect for the king. Camps believes the temple was a memorial for a funeral cult. Its construction ten years into Micipsa’s reign shows political symbolism. Micipsa, the only ruler after his brothers died, used it to show unity around the king.

The Capitol is a Roman temple from the 2nd century. It honored Rome’s protective triad: Jupiter Best and Greatest, Juno Queen, and Minerva August. It also honored emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. This shows the temple was completed between AD 166 and 167.

Thomas d'Arcos identified the Capitol as a temple to Jupiter in the 17th century. More research happened in the late 19th century, led by Louis Carton in 1893. Walls and the portico’s top were restored between 1903 and 1910. A crypt was found beneath the temple by Claude Poinssot in 1955. Recent work was done by the Tunisian Institut national du patrimoine from 1994 to 1996.

The Capitol is well-preserved because it was part of a Byzantine fortress. Eleven steps lead to the front. The temple’s Corinthian columns are 8 meters tall. The pediment above is perfectly preserved. It shows Emperor Antoninus Pius being carried by an eagle as he was made a god.

The cella’s base has alcoves for three statues. The middle alcove holds a large statue of Jupiter. The discovery of Jupiter’s statue head led Poinssot to think the crypt was built after Christianity replaced old religions. St-Amans says the crypt might have been built with the Byzantine citadel, which included the forum and capitol.

The Capitol was built at the same time as similar temples in North Africa. Gros explains this was because the imperial cult and Jupiter’s worship were closer.

Near the Capitol is the "square of the Rose of the Winds," named for a compass rose on the floor. The Byzantine citadel’s remains are nearby, using parts of the old city after it declined.

• Antoninus Pius being made a god
• The cella’s alcoves for statues
• The Capitol in the early 20th century
• The Capitol’s front in 2006
• The Capitol at night

The Temple of Mercury is also dedicated to Tellus. It faces the market, with the "square of the Rose of the Winds" between them. The temple is mostly ruined. It has three cellae but no courtyard. The sanctuary, reached by four steps, sits on a faded platform. It was excavated and reinforced between 1904 and 1908.

The small Temple of August Piety was built during Hadrian’s reign. It was funded by Caius Pompeius Nahanius. It faces the "square of the Rose of the Winds." Part of the entrance remains. Behind the temple, on the foundations of other temples, stands a mosque. The mosque is the last part of the old village before New Dougga was built.

D'Arcos identified the temple in 1631 using an inscription that was still there. The temple’s platform is low (1–1.5 meters). Seven steps on the south side lead to it.

The first Temple of Minerva in Dougga was a gift from the city’s patron at the end of the 1st century. A more important site for Minerva was built during Antoninus Pius’s reign. It was funded by Julia Paula Laenatiana, a priestess of the imperial cult. The building used the hillside’s slope. The temple’s platform is at the same level as the portico’s roof. The temple itself is outside the surrounding building. Steps to the temple emphasize its separation from the people.

The Temple of Caracalla’s Victory in Germany is the only known imperial cult temple in Dougga. An inscription fragment was found in 1835, but the temple was identified in 1966. It has a nymphaeum from Commodus’s reign.

The temple is narrow and has an unusual design. It is 41.5 meters by 14.2 meters, near the road to the Aïn Doura Bath. It is linked to a triumphal arch over the road. A semi-circular staircase leads to the temple. Rainwater reservoirs are in each corner of the courtyard. The cella has six niches for statues of Apollo, Liber, Neptune, Mercury, and two unknown gods.

The temple is visible from

Bishopric

In ancient times, Thugga was the home of the bishop of Thucca Terenbenthina. The bishop's office was created during the Roman Empire and lasted through the Arian Vandal Kingdom and the Orthodox Byzantine Empire. It stopped working after the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. In the 20th century, the Roman Catholic Church re-founded the diocese as a titular see.

Infrastructure

Dougga has two groups of water storage tanks, one in the north and one in the west. The western group is especially well preserved. A water channel leading to the city is located near these well-preserved tanks. This channel is one of the best-preserved examples of its kind in modern-day Tunisia.

The six water storage tanks at Aïn El Hammam are near the Temple of Juno Caelestis. Together, they can hold 6000 cubic meters of water, but they are now in ruins. These tanks were filled by a spring 12 kilometers away and a water channel built during the time of Emperor Commodus. The channel was repaired in the last part of the 4th century CE.

This site is still used once a year for a festival honoring Mokhola, a female saint and benefactor from Morocco, according to local stories. People honor Mokhola with animal sacrifices. Evidence shows this tradition began as a pagan practice, with the spring, called fons moccolitanus, originally being the object of worship.

The second group of water storage tanks, called Aïn Mizeb, is very well preserved. These eight round, dome-shaped tanks are near the Temple of Minerva. They can hold 9,000 cubic meters of water and include a basin where water is collected. The tanks are filled by a spring 200 meters away, connected by an underground water channel.

A smaller group of water storage tanks is located near the Aïn Doura Bath, in the southwest part of the site.

Dougga’s streets are not arranged in the usual way for a Roman city, which typically has a main road (cardo) and a secondary road (decumanus) intersecting at the center. This city’s layout is unique.

The city’s center may have been paved, and the streets appear to have curved, winding paths. Evidence of sewers exists, as shown by stones still visible in the streets. At the base of the hill, there are signs of smaller roads connecting to the main road that linked Carthage to Theveste.

Discoveries made at Dougga

The site at Dougga has provided many works of art. Many of these have been taken to museums, especially the Bardo National Museum in Tunis. Few works of art remain at the site. Exceptions include a sculpture of a togate man (togatus) at the "Square of the Rose of the Winds" and several mosaics, such as those found in the building called the House of Venus and at the Aïn Doura Bath. This happened because Dougga's art was discovered during a time when archaeological sites were often looted and left after excavation. This practice helped preserve some mosaics with their colors still visible. Other mosaics that were not removed have suffered damage from exposure to the weather.

A proposal to build a museum on the site is being considered. This museum would display recent discoveries and future finds.

Several emperor portraits have been found at Dougga. One notable example is the portrait of Lucius Verus. He is shown with thick hair, a full beard, and a lively expression, making it one of the most important statues found in Roman Africa. This statue was made from Carrara marble and still has some color in the hair.

The Bardo National Museum also holds a togate man (togatus) from the 3rd century. It shows an older man with a short beard wearing a toga. This artwork likely reflects the artistic styles of its time.

The "butler's mosaic," from the middle of the 3rd century, shows a drinking scene. Two figures are serving wine from amphoras on their shoulders to two smaller figures. The amphoras are marked with Greek words meaning "Drink!" and "You will live!" Other figures nearby carry an amphora, a laurel branch, and a basket of roses. This scene represents a welcome to guests and a promise of hospitality. Another mosaic in the museum includes the phrase "Omnia tibi felicia," meaning "May everything please you."

The "mosaic of the victorious charioteer" is younger than these works. It dates to the second half of the 4th century and includes the phrase "Eros omnia per te," meaning "All things through you, Eros." The charioteer and horses are depicted with great detail. The horses, named Amandus and Frunitus, are arranged symmetrically, a style popular at the time. The charioteer holds a whip, a crown of branches, and a palm branch. The starting blocks of a circus are visible in the background. This mosaic was found in a private home and may represent a gift from the owner celebrating a charioteer named Eros.

The "Ulysses mosaic" is inspired by the Odyssey. It shows Odysseus (Ulysses to the Romans) standing on a boat decorated with a human head and a palm branch. His hands are tied to the mast to resist the sirens' song. His companions have wax in their ears, as described in the legend. Three sirens, with women's bodies and birds' wings and legs, are at the base of a cliff. One holds a flute, another a lyre, and the third is believed to be the singer. A small boat with a fisherman and a large lobster is shown nearby. The mosaic dates to around AD 260–268 and was found in the "House of Ulysses and the Pirates."

The mosaic "Neptune and the pirates" comes from the same area. It shows Neptune punishing pirates on the Tyrrhenian Sea, blending themes from Dionysus and marine myths. Neptune stands ready to throw his spear, supported by a maenad, a satyr, and Silenus, who holds a ship's rudder. A leopard attacks a pirate who turns into a dolphin upon recognizing Neptune. Genii board another ship, while fishermen try to catch an octopus with a net.

Yacoub suggests these scenes may have a protective purpose, possibly based on Hellenic traditions.

The mosaic "Cyclopses forging Jupiter's thunderbolts," found in a frigidarium, shows three cyclopses—Brontes, Steropes, and Pyracmon or Arges—naked and forging Jupiter's thunderbolts. Vulcan, seated in front of them, holds the thunderbolts on an anvil. This element is missing in the mosaic. The mosaic dates to the end of the 3rd century and was found in the "Bath of the Cyclopses."

• Butler's mosaic
• Omnia tibi Felicia
• Ulysses and the sirens
• Neptune and the pirates
• Cyclopses forging Jupiter's thunderbolts

A bilingual inscription from a mausoleum, taken by British consul Read, is held by the British Museum. The Punic-Libyan Inscription shows the same text written in both Punic and Berber languages.