Calakmul (pronounced /ˌkɑːlɑːkˈmʊl/) is a Maya archaeological site located in the Mexican state of Campeche, deep within the jungles of the Petén Basin region. It is 35 kilometers (22 miles) from the Guatemalan border. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful Mayan cities.

Calakmul was a major Maya power in the northern Petén Basin region of the Yucatán Peninsula in southern Mexico. It controlled a large area, as shown by the widespread use of its emblem glyph, which features a snake head and represents the word "Kaan." Calakmul was the center of what is called the Kingdom of the Snake or Snake Kingdom. This kingdom ruled during most of the Mesoamerican Classic period. Calakmul is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 people and, at times, governed areas as far as 150 kilometers (93 miles) away. The site has 6,750 ancient structures, with the largest being a great pyramid. Structure 2 is over 45 meters (148 feet) tall, making it one of the tallest pyramids in Mesoamerica.

Four tombs have been found inside the pyramid. Like many temples and pyramids in Mesoamerica, the pyramid at Calakmul grew larger by adding layers on top of the existing structure until it reached its final size. The central area of major buildings covers about 2 square kilometers (0.77 square miles), and the entire site, which includes many residential buildings, spans approximately 20 square kilometers (7.7 square miles).

During the Classic period, Calakmul had a strong rivalry with the city of Tikal to the south. The political actions of these two cities are often described as a struggle between two powerful Maya states.

Calakmul was rediscovered from the air by biologist Cyrus L. Lundell of the Mexican Exploitation Chicle Company on December 29, 1931. The discovery was reported to Sylvanus G. Morley of the Carnegie Institute at Chichen Itza in March 1932.

Etymology

Calakmul is a name used today. It was named by Cyrus L. Lundell, who explained that in the Maya language, "ca" means "two," "lak" means "adjacent," and "mul" refers to any man-made hill or pyramid. Therefore, Calakmul means "City of the Two Adjacent Pyramids." In ancient times, the city was called Ox Te' Tuun, which translates to "Place of Three Stones." Another name linked to the site, possibly for a larger area, is Chiik Naab'. The rulers of Calakmul called themselves "k'uhul kaanal ajaw," meaning "Divine Lords of the Snake." However, the connection between this title and the actual location remains unclear.

Location

Calakmul is located in Campeche state in southeastern Mexico, about 35 kilometers (22 miles) north of the border with Guatemala and 38 kilometers (24 miles) north of the ruins of El Mirador. The ruins of El Tintal are 68 kilometers (42 miles) to the southwest of Calakmul and were connected to both El Mirador and Calakmul by a raised road. Calakmul was about 20 kilometers (12 miles) south of the nearby city of Oxpemul and approximately 25 kilometers (16 miles) southwest of La Muñeca. The city is located on a raised area about 35 meters (115 feet) above a large seasonal swamp to the west, called El Laberinto bajo. This swamp is about 34 by 8 kilometers (21.1 by 5.0 miles) and provided an important water source during the rainy season. The bajo was linked to a complex water-control system, including natural and man-made features like gullies and canals, that surrounded an area of 22 square kilometers (8.5 square miles) around the main part of the site, known as Inner Calakmul. The location of Calakmul near the edge of the bajo offered two advantages: fertile soil along the swamp’s edge and access to flint nodules. The city is built on a natural limestone dome that rises 35 meters (115 feet) above the surrounding land. This dome was flattened by the Maya. During the Preclassic and Classic periods, people lived mainly along the edge of El Laberinto bajo. During the Classic period, buildings were also constructed on high ground and small islands in the swamp where flint was worked.

At the start of the 21st century, the area around Calakmul was still covered by dense forest. During the first millennium AD, the region received regular rainfall, though there was less surface water than in southern Guatemala. Today, Calakmul is located within the 1,800,000-acre (7,300 square kilometer) Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. The area protected in the Reserve was planned by the Centro de Investigaciones Historicas y Sociales de Universidad Autónoma de Campeche (CIHS/UAC).

Population and extent

During the Late Classic period, the city had about 50,000 people living there and covered an area larger than 70 square kilometers (27 square miles). The city was the capital of a large regional state that spanned about 13,000 square kilometers (5,000 square miles). In the Terminal Classic period, the city's population dropped sharply, and the number of people living in rural areas fell to 10% of its earlier level.

The population density of Calakmul during the Late Classic period was calculated as 1,000 people per square kilometer (2,564 per square mile) in the central area and 420 people per square kilometer (1,076 per square mile) in surrounding areas (122 square kilometers or 47 square miles). Calakmul was a true city with a mix of elite and commoner residences, not just a center for the elite. The central area of Calakmul was called Ox Te' Tuun, which may have been named after the triadic pyramid known as Structure 2.

The Calakmul kingdom included 20 smaller cities, such as La Muñeca, Naachtun, Sasilha, Oxpemul, and Uxul. These smaller cities had a combined population of about 200,000 people. The kingdom also included many smaller sites, most of which were small groups of buildings around courtyards. Some larger rural sites, located on ridges near low-lying areas, had temples, palaces, and stone monuments. The total number of people living in rural areas of the kingdom was estimated at 1.5 million. Including the city and all rural areas within the 13,000 square kilometers (5,000 square miles) of the regional state, the total population of the Calakmul kingdom during the Late Classic period was about 1.75 million people.

The Emblem Glyph of Calakmul appears more frequently in ancient Maya writings than the Emblem Glyph of any other Maya city, including Tikal. The glyph, which includes a symbol of a snake head read as "Kaan," marked the territory controlled by Calakmul. Calakmul was the center of what is now called the Snake Kingdom. At times, the city had authority over areas as far as 150 kilometers away.

Emblem Glyph

During the 7th century, the region known as Calakmul was ruled by a polity called Kaan. Earlier, in the Preclassic period, a political state in the Mirador Basin also used the title Kaan. Some believe that after the Mirador state fell, its people moved north to Calakmul, where they created a new Kaan polity. However, studies of ancient carvings at Calakmul show that before the 7th century, its emblem glyph was not a snake but a bat. This suggests that a different group ruled there at that time. The Kaan emblem glyph was also found once at Dzibanché, a site farther east. It is possible that during the late 6th or early 7th century, the polity at Dzibanché relocated to Calakmul to establish a more strategic capital. After Calakmul's power declined in the 8th century, following the rule of Yuknoom Took K'awiil, the bat emblem glyph reappeared. However, many questions remain, and further research is needed to clarify these events.

History

Calakmul has a long history of people living there, and digging has found evidence from the Middle Preclassic period all the way to the Postclassic period. The roads that connected Calakmul to cities like El Mirador, Nakbe, and El Tintal show that these cities had strong political connections. These links may have started in the Preclassic period, when both Calakmul and El Mirador were important cities, and continued during the Classic period, when Calakmul was the most powerful city in the region. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever found in the Maya lowlands.

The history of the Maya Classic period is shaped by the rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul, which is compared to a competition between two major Maya cities. Earlier times were often ruled by one large city, and by the Early Classic period, Tikal was becoming powerful after El Mirador and Nakbe had been dominant earlier. However, Calakmul was a strong rival with similar resources that challenged Tikal’s power. Calakmul tried to surround Tikal with its own network of allies. From the second half of the 6th century AD until the late 7th century, Calakmul was stronger than Tikal, but Tikal never lost all its power. In AD 695, Tikal won a major battle against Calakmul. About 50 years later, Tikal defeated Calakmul’s most important allies. Eventually, both cities fell as the Classic Maya civilization declined.

The rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul may have been more than just a fight for resources. Their royal family histories show different origins, and the competition between them may have had religious or ideological reasons. Calakmul’s royal family seems to have started in the Preclassic city of El Mirador, while Tikal’s royal family was greatly influenced by the distant city of Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Most monuments from Tikal and its allies focus on male rulers, while monuments from Calakmul and its allies often highlight the importance of female rulers and joint rule by kings and queens.

Calakmul was already a large city during the Preclassic period. Its early history is not fully known, but a list of rulers has been pieced together that goes back to an earlier time. This royal family is partly based on pottery from the Preclassic cities of El Mirador and Nakbe. This suggests that Calakmul’s power may have come from these cities, with its royal family starting in the Mirador Basin during the Late Preclassic period and moving to Calakmul during the Classic period after those cities fell.

Both Calakmul and Tikal were large cities during the Preclassic period and remained important through the Classic period. Early carved symbols found in Structure 2 record the likely crowning of a Calakmul king in AD 411 and the rule of a non-royal leader in 514. After this, there is a long gap in written records, even though the Kaan dynasty was growing in power during this time. The lack of records may be because the Kaan dynasty was not in Calakmul during this period or because the monuments were destroyed later.

The earliest clear written records about the Kaan dynasty come from the city of Dzibanche in Quintana Roo, far north of Calakmul. A carved staircase shows captives with their names and the dates they were captured, along with the name of King Yuknoom Che'en I. However, it is unclear if the captives were his subjects or rulers captured by him. Some dates may be from the 5th century AD. A nearby site, El Resbalón, has a jumbled carved text with a date from 529, showing that the city was controlled by the Kaan dynasty.

By the middle of the 6th century AD, Calakmul was forming a large political alliance, which led to conflicts with Tikal. Calakmul’s influence reached deep into the Petén region. King Tuun K'ab' Hix of Calakmul helped crown Aj Wosal as ruler of Naranjo in 546. Another city under Tuun K'ab' Hix was captured by Yaxchilan on the Usumacinta River in 537.

In 561, the king known as Sky Witness placed a ruler on the throne at Los Alacranes. Sky Witness was a key figure in Maya politics. He became the ruler of Caracol, a city south of Naranjo, which had been under Tikal’s control. In 562, according to a damaged text at Caracol, Sky Witness defeated Tikal and killed its king, Wak Chan K'awiil, ending that branch of Tikal’s royal family. This major defeat caused Tikal to have a 130-year period of weakness, showing Calakmul’s dominance. This event marks the end of the Early Classic period and the start of the Late Classic period. Sky Witness is also mentioned at Okop, a site far north in Quintana Roo. The last record of Sky Witness is from Caracol in AD 572, though the text is damaged and likely notes his death.

Sky Witness was quickly followed by First Axewielder, who is mentioned in a text from Dzibanche celebrating the K'atun-ending of 573. First Axewielder ruled for about six years. In 579, Uneh Chan became king of Calakmul. Uneh Chan led a strong campaign in the western Maya region and attacked Palenque on April 23, 599, with his ally Lakam Chak, the ruler of Santa Elena, a city 70 kilometers east of Palenque. They defeated Palenque’s queen, Lady Yohl Ik'nal, and destroyed the city. This event is recorded on carved steps at Palenque and caused a lasting hatred toward Calakmul. Lady Yohl Ik'nal survived the battle and ruled for several more years, possibly paying tribute to Calakmul.

Uneh Chan kept alliances with cities in the east and is shown on Caracol Stela 4 overseeing an event with King Yajaw Te' K'inich of Caracol before 583. Calakmul attacked Palenque again on April 7, 611, under

Site description

The site core of Calakmul covers an area of about 2 square kilometers (0.77 square miles). This area includes the remains of approximately 1,000 structures. The area around the site core, which includes smaller homes, covers more than 20 square kilometers (7.7 square miles). Archaeologists have mapped about 6,250 structures in this larger area. Calakmul is similar in size and estimated population to Tikal, but its buildings were likely more densely packed.

The stone used in construction is a soft limestone. This type of stone has caused the carvings and sculptures at the site to erode over time. The city was built in a circular pattern, with different zones extending outward from the center. The innermost zone covers about 1.75 square kilometers (0.68 square miles). This area includes most of the large buildings and has 975 mapped structures. About 300 of these are made with vaulted stone masonry. Around 92 structures were built on large pyramids arranged around plazas and courtyards. Three pyramids, Structures 1, 2, and 7, are tall enough to be seen above the trees. A 6-meter (20-foot) high wall bordered the city’s core on the north side. This wall controlled access and may have also been used for defense.

Many homes of common people were built along the edge of El Laberinto swamp to the west of the site core. Some homes and public buildings for important people were also located in this area. The space between homes was used for growing crops.

The site has a network of canals and reservoirs. Five major reservoirs have been found, including the largest in the Maya world, which measures 242 by 212 meters (794 by 696 feet). This reservoir is filled by a seasonal river during the rainy season and still holds water today. Thirteen reservoirs have been identified at Calakmul. Together, they could hold over 200,000,000 liters (44,000,000 imperial gallons) of water. This amount could support 50,000 to 100,000 people. There is no evidence that the reservoirs were used for irrigation.

Aguada 1 is the largest reservoir and covers 5 hectares (540,000 square feet).

Eight causeways, called sacbe, have been found around Calakmul. Two have been mapped, three have been identified on the ground, and three have been found using remote sensing. They are numbered Sacbe 1 through Sacbe 7. These causeways connected Calakmul to nearby sites and to distant cities like El Mirador, El Tintal, and Nakbe. Some causeways cross swampy areas and are elevated above the wetland. These areas now have more dense vegetation than the surrounding forest.

Sacbe 1 is 450 meters (1,480 feet) long and is made of stone. It is located within the site core and was first mapped in the 1930s by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Sacbe 2 is 70 meters (230 feet) long and is made of packed earth. It was discovered during an excavation near a quarry. This causeway may have been used to transport stone to build Structures 1 and 3.

Sacbe 3 extends 8 kilometers (5 miles) northeast from the site core and is visible from the top of Structure 1. It was discovered in 1982.

Sacbe 4 runs 24 kilometers (15 miles) southeast from the site core and is also visible from the top of Structure 1. It was discovered in 1982.

Sacbe 5 runs west from a main water source across El Laberinto seasonal swamp and continues for at least 16 kilometers (9.9 miles) toward Sasilhá.

Sacbe 6 runs southwest across El Laberinto bajo and connects Calakmul to El Mirador (38.25 kilometers or 23.77 miles to the southwest) and then to El Tintal (an additional 30 kilometers or 19 miles).

Sacbe 7 is located south of Sacbe 6 and is at least 5.1 kilometers (3.2 miles) long. It crosses El Laberinto swamp.

Sacbe 8 is on the west side of the swamp and does not cross into the site core.

Structure 1 (or Structure I) is a 50-meter-high (160-foot) pyramid to the east of the site core. Stelae were placed at its base by Yuknoom Took' K'awiil in 731. Because it is built on a low hill, Structure 1 appears taller than Structure 2, but this is not true.

Structure 2 (or Structure II) is a large pyramid temple facing north. It is one of the largest in the Maya world. Its base is 120 meters (390 feet) square, and it is over 45 meters (148 feet) high. The pyramid was built by adding layers to an older structure. The oldest part, Structure 2A, is a triadic pyramid from the Late Preclassic period. In the Early Classic period, a large extension was added to the front of the pyramid, covering an earlier building. Three shrines (Structures 2B, 2C, and 2D) were built on this extension, each with its own staircase. Six large masks were placed on the front of the pyramid. Structure 2 is similar in age, size, and design to the El Tigre pyramid at El Mirador. Later, buildings with stelae were added along the base of the pyramid.

In the 8th century AD, Structure 2B was covered by a large pyramid and a stepped facade. Later, another facade was built over this, but it may not have been completed. In the Late Classic period, a nine-room palace was built on top of the pyramid, with a painted stucco roof. The rooms were arranged in three groups of three. The first two rows of rooms were used for food preparation. Room 7, the southwest room, was a sweatbath.

Structure 3 (or Structure III, also called the Lundell Palace) is southeast of Structure 4 and is located on the east side of the Central Plaza. It has many rooms.

Structure 4 (or Structure IV) is a group of three temples on the east side of the Central Plaza. It is divided into three sections: Structures 4a, 4b, and 4c. Structure 4b is built on a foundation from the Preclassic period