Baalbek ( / ˈ b ɑː l b ɛ k , ˈ b eɪ ə l b ɛ k / ; Arabic : بَعْلَبَكّ , romanized : Baʿlabakk ; Syriac : ܒܥܠܒܟ ) is a city in Lebanon’s Beqaa Valley, located east of the Litani River and about 67 km (42 mi) northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of the Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608. Most people are Shia Muslims, with Sunni Muslims and Christians also living there; in 2017, many Syrian refugees were present.

Baalbek has a history that dates back at least 11,000 years. After Alexander the Great conquered the city in 334 BCE, he renamed it Heliopolis, meaning "Sun City" in Greek. The city grew wealthy during Roman rule. Later, it changed as Christianity spread and then as Islam became more important after Arab conquests in the 7th century. In later times, the city was attacked by the Mongols and suffered from earthquakes, which reduced its importance during the Ottoman and modern periods.

Today, Baalbek is a tourist destination. It is famous for the ruins of a Roman temple complex, which includes the Temple of Bacchus and the Temple of Jupiter. These ruins were named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1984. Other attractions include the Great Umayyad Mosque, the Baalbek International Festival, the mausoleum of Sit Khawla, and a Roman quarry site called Hajar al-Hibla. However, tourism has faced challenges due to conflicts in Lebanon, such as the 1975–1990 civil war, the Syrian civil war since 2011, and the Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present).

Baalbek is considered part of Hezbollah’s main area and is a political center for the group. During the Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon (1982–2000), Hezbollah took control of the city from the Lebanese army and used it as a base to train fighters and attack Israeli forces. Hezbollah continues to have strong political support in Baalbek. In the 2022 Lebanese general election, the Amal-Hezbollah list won 9 out of 10 seats in the Baalbek-Hermel Governorate.

Israel has carried out many airstrikes and raids in the Baalbek area over the years. For example, in 2006 during Operation Sharp and Smooth, Israeli soldiers attacked a hospital and bombed homes, killing two Hezbollah fighters and at least eleven civilians. In 2024, during the Israel–Hezbollah conflict, Israel ordered people in the city to leave. Shortly after, Israeli airstrikes killed 19 people, including eight women.

Etymology

Baalbek is located a few kilometers from a swamp where two rivers, the Litani (also called Leontes in ancient times) and the Asi (also called the upper Orontes), begin. It may be the same place as "manbaa al-nahrayn," meaning "Source of the Two Rivers." This location is also connected to the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, a set of ancient texts discovered in the 1920s, and a separate text about a serpent.

During the Roman Empire, Baalbek was known as Heliopolis, a name derived from the Greek Hēlioúpolis, meaning "Sun City." This name was used during the Hellenistic period and is linked to the worship of the sun. The name appears in records from the Seleucid and Ptolemaic empires. However, earlier Assyrian names for towns in the Levant were still used alongside Greek names imposed by the Diadochi, who ruled after Alexander the Great. In Greek religion, Helios was the sun in the sky and also a god representing the sun. The local Semitic god Baʿal Haddu was often compared to Zeus or Jupiter, or called the "Great God of Heliopolis." Some scholars believe this name may relate to the Egyptian god Ra. To distinguish it from the Heliopolis in Egypt, this city was sometimes called Heliopolis in Syria or Coelesyria. In Catholicism, it is referred to as Heliopolis in Phoenicia, named after the Roman province of Phoenice. The importance of the sun in local beliefs is also seen in the name "Biḳāʿ al-ʿAzīz," meaning "Plateau of the Mighty One," which refers to an earlier sun god named Aziz. In ancient Greek and Roman times, the city was known as Heliopolis. Some of the best-preserved Roman ruins in Lebanon are found here, including one of the largest temples in the Roman Empire. The gods worshipped there—Jupiter, Venus, and Bacchus—were linked to Canaanite deities Hadad and Atargatis. The design of the temples shows local influences, differing from typical Roman styles.

The name "bʿlbk" appears in the Mishnah, a second-century Jewish text, as a type of garlic called "shum ba'albeki." It is also found in two Syriac manuscripts from the early 5th century: a translation of Eusebius's Theophania and a biography of Rabbula, a bishop from Edessa. In Classical Arabic, the name was pronounced "Baʿlabakk," and in Modern Standard Arabic, it is "Baʿlabak" or "Baʿlabekk." In Lebanese Arabic, it is "Bʿalbik."

The origin of the name "Baalbek" has been debated since the 18th century. Some scholars, like Cook, believed it meant "Baʿal (Lord) of the Beka," while others, like Donne, thought it meant "City of the Sun." Lendering suggested it might be a shortened form of "Baʿal Nebeq," meaning "Lord of the Source" of the Litani River. Steiner proposed it could be a Semitic version of "Lord Bacchus," referencing the temple complex dedicated to the Roman god Bacchus.

In the 19th century, some Biblical archaeologists connected Baalbek to places mentioned in religious texts, such as the town of Baalgad in the Book of Joshua, the city of Baalath in the First Book of Kings, the location of Baal-hamon where Solomon had a vineyard, and the "Plain of Aven" in the Book of Amos.

History

The hilltop of Tell Baalbek, located in a valley east of the northern Beqaa Valley (Latin: Coele-Syria), has shown signs of nearly constant human living for about 8,000 to 9,000 years. It had a steady water supply from a stream flowing from the Rās al-ʿAyn spring southwest of the citadel and, during springtime, from small streams formed by melting snow from the Anti-Lebanons. Later, a writer named Macrobius claimed that the site was founded by a group of Egyptian or Assyrian priests. However, the settlement was not important enough to be mentioned in any known Assyrian or Egyptian records, unless it was called by a different name. Its location in a fertile valley, near a major water source, and along a key trade route from Tyre to Palmyra should have made it a wealthy and impressive place from an early time. During the Canaanite period, local temples were mainly dedicated to the Heliopolitan Triad: a male god (Baʿal), his wife (Astarte), and their son (Adon). The area where the Temple of Jupiter now stands was likely the center of earlier worship, as its altar was placed at the hill’s highest point, and the rest of the sanctuary was built to match that height.

In Islamic stories, the temple complex was said to be a palace built by djinn for King Solomon and given as a wedding gift to the Queen of Sheba. Its true origin as a Roman site remained hidden by medieval fortifications until the 16th century, when the Polish prince Radziwiłł visited.

After Alexander the Great conquered Persia in the 330s BC, Baalbek (known as Heliopolis under Greek names) became part of the kingdoms ruled by Alexander’s successors in Egypt and Syria. It was later taken over by the Romans during their eastern wars. The Roman settlers of the colony Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Heliopolitana may have arrived as early as the time of Julius Caesar, but more likely came as soldiers from the 5th and 8th Legions under Augustus, who also stationed a Roman garrison there. From 15 BC to AD 193, the city was part of the territory of Berytus. It is mentioned in writings by Josephus, Pliny, Strabo, and Ptolemy, as well as on coins of nearly every emperor from Nerva to Gallienus. The 1st-century Pliny did not list it among the Decapolis, a group of ten cities in Coelesyria, but the 2nd-century Ptolemy did. The population likely changed with the seasons, influenced by market fairs, the Indian monsoon, and caravans traveling to the coast and inland.

During the Classical Antiquity period, the city’s temple to Baʿal Haddu was first linked to the worship of the Greek sun god Helios and later to the Greek and Roman sky god, known as "Heliopolitan Zeus" or "Jupiter." The current Temple of Jupiter probably replaced an earlier one built on the same foundation. It was constructed during the mid-1st century and likely completed around AD 60. The statue of Jupiter was a beardless golden god in the pose of a charioteer, holding a whip in his right hand and a thunderbolt and stalks of grain in his left. This image appeared on local coins and was carried through the streets during yearly festivals. Macrobius compared the rituals to those for Diva Fortuna at Antium, stating that the main citizens of the town prepared for their role by fasting, staying pure, and shaving their heads. In bronze statues found in Byblos and Tortosa, Jupiter was surrounded by busts representing the sun, moon, and five known planets. The statue of Mercury was especially prominent in these depictions. A marble stone in Massilia showed a similar arrangement but made Mercury a full figure. Local religious practices also honored Baetylia, black cone-shaped stones considered sacred to Baʿal. One of these was taken to Rome by Emperor Elagabalus, a former priest of the sun at nearby Emesa, who built a temple for it on the Palatine Hill. Heliopolis was a famous oracle and pilgrimage site, and its worship spread far, with inscriptions to the Heliopolitan god found in Athens, Rome, Pannonia, Venetia, Gaul, and near the Wall in Britain. The Roman temple complex began to develop during the late 1st century BC under Augustus and continued growing until the rise of Christianity in the 4th century. Some 6th-century writings by John Malalas of Antioch claimed that most of the complex was built during the reign of Antoninus Pius in the 2nd century, but the accuracy of this is uncertain. By the 4th century, the site had three temples on Tell Baalbek: one to Jupiter Heliopolitanus (Baʿal), one to Venus Heliopolitana (Ashtart), and one to Bacchus. A fourth temple on a nearby hill was dedicated to Mercury (Adon or Seimios), the third figure of the Heliopolitan Triad. At this time, the site was among the two largest religious centers in the Western world, competing with Praeneste in Italy.

Emperor Trajan consulted the site’s oracle twice. The first time, he asked a sealed question and received a blank reply, which he interpreted as a positive sign. Later, he asked if he would return alive from his wars against Parthia and received a broken vine staff as a response. In AD 193, Septimius Severus granted the city ius Italicum rights. His wife Julia Domna and son Caracalla visited Egypt and Syria in AD 215; inscriptions honoring them at the site may date from that time. Julia was a Syrian native whose father had been a priest of the sun at Emesa, like Elagabalus.

The town became a battleground during

Geography

Baalbek has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) influenced by inland weather patterns. It is in one of the drier areas of the country, receiving an average of 450 millimeters (18 inches) of rainfall each year. This is less than the 800 to 850 millimeters (31 to 33 inches) found in coastal regions, where most rain occurs between November and April. Summers in Baalbek are very hot and dry, while winters are cool and sometimes experience snow. Autumn and spring have moderate temperatures with some rainfall.

Demographics

In the year 2014, 93.85% of registered voters in Baalbek were Muslim, and 5.66% were Christian. Of the Muslim voters, 59.61% were Shiite Muslims, and 34.24% were Sunni Muslims.

Economy

The Roman ruins in Baalbek have been the location for the Baalbek International Festival for many years.

Baalbek’s tourism industry suffered greatly because of the Lebanese Civil War, which lasted from 1975 to 1990. After the war ended, tourism slowly increased again, including performances by opera groups and orchestras. However, this growth was interrupted again when Israeli forces bombed Baalbek during the 2006 war.

In October 2006, restoration work began at Lebanon’s historic sites. The Roman ruins in Baalbek were not directly hit by the bombing, but the explosions during the war caused a block of stones at the ruins to fall. Cracks in the temples of Jupiter and Bacchus were also feared to have grown larger. Frederique Husseini, head of Lebanon’s Department of Antiquities, asked European countries for $550,000 to repair Baalbek’s souk and an additional $900,000 to fix other damaged buildings.

Starting in the early 2000s, Hezbollah created permanent or temporary exhibitions called "Exposition of the Resistance." These exhibitions honor what is seen as Lebanese resistance to Israeli occupation. The displays include defused Israeli weapons, recreated war scenes, and photos and videos showing Lebanese people who were killed by Israel. In 2009, Hezbollah opened an exhibition to remember the 2006 war.

During the Syrian Civil War, the UK Foreign Office marked areas near the Syrian border, including Baalbek and the Beqaa Valley, as "red zones," warning people not to travel there. The US State Department did the same. These warnings, based on the areas’ closeness to Syria and conflicts between religious groups, reduced international tourism.

During Israel’s 2024 invasion of Lebanon, Israeli forces bombed a restaurant that many tourists visited and damaged the historic Hotel Palmyra. In November, UNESCO provided Baalbek with extra protection to help keep the archaeological site safe during the invasion. Baalbek was one of 34 areas given this protection.

Ruins

The Tell Baalbek temple complex, used as a fortress for the town during the Middle Ages, was built using local stone, mostly white granite and rough white marble. Over time, it has been damaged by many earthquakes in the region, the destruction of religious images by Christian and Muslim rulers, and the reuse of its stones for fortifications and other buildings. The temples also suffered small damage from the shaking caused by Israeli bombs during the 2006 Lebanon war. Nearby, the Qubbat Duris, a 13th-century Muslim shrine on the old road to Damascus, is made from granite columns that were taken from Baalbek. These columns were once joined with iron, but many were broken open or knocked down by rulers from Damascus to remove the metal. As late as the 16th century, the Temple of Jupiter still had 27 standing columns out of an original 58; there were only nine before the 1759 earthquakes and six today.

The complex is built on a raised platform that is 5 meters (16 feet) above an older T-shaped base. This base includes a podium, staircase, and foundation walls made from about 24 monoliths, each weighing around 300 tonnes (330 tons) at their lowest level. The tallest retaining wall on the west side has a second row of monoliths, including the famous "Three Stones" (Ancient Greek: Τρίλιθον, Trílithon): a row of three stones, each over 19 meters (62 feet) long, 4.3 meters (14 feet) high, and 3.6 meters (12 feet) wide, cut from limestone. Each of these stones weighs about 800 tonnes (880 tons). A fourth, even larger stone called the Stone of the Pregnant Woman remains unused in a nearby quarry 800 meters (2,600 feet) from the town. It is estimated to weigh 1,000 tonnes (1,100 tons). A fifth, even larger stone weighing about 1,200 tonnes (1,300 tons) is also in the same quarry. This quarry was slightly higher than the temple complex, so no lifting was needed to move the stones.

The temple complex was entered from the east through the Propylaea (προπύλαιον, propýlaion) or Portico, which included a wide staircase rising 20 feet (6.1 meters) to an arcade of 12 columns flanked by two towers. Most of the columns have been knocked down, and the stairs were removed for use in nearby walls. However, a Latin inscription remains on some of the column bases, stating that Longinus, a lifeguard of the 1st Parthian Legion, and Septimius, a freedman, gilded their capitals with bronze in gratitude for the safety of Septimius Severus’s son Antoninus Caracalla and empress Julia Domna.

Immediately behind the Propylaeum is a hexagonal forecourt reached through a three-part entrance added in the mid-3rd century by Emperor Philip the Arab. Traces remain of the two rows of columns that once surrounded it, but its original purpose is unknown. Some believed it was the town’s forum, while others thought it was a sacred cypress grove. Better-preserved coins from the time show a single stalk of grain instead of a cypress tree.

The rectangular Great Court to the west covers about 3 or 4 acres (1.2 or 1.6 hectares) and included the main altar for burnt offerings, with mosaic-floored lustration basins to the north and south, a subterranean chamber, and three underground passageways 17 feet (5.2 meters) wide by 30 feet (9.1 meters) high. Two of these passageways run east and west, and the third connects them north and south. Inscriptions suggest these were used by Roman soldiers. These areas were surrounded by Corinthian porticoes, one of which was never completed. The column bases and capitals were made of limestone, while the shafts were monoliths of highly polished red Egyptian granite 7.08 meters (23.2 feet) high. Six of the original 128 columns remain standing. Inscriptions show that the court once had portraits of Marcus Aurelius’s daughter Sabina, Septimius Severus, Gordian, and Velius Rufus, dedicated by the city’s Roman colonists. The entablature was richly decorated but is now mostly ruined. A westward-facing basilica was built over the altar during the reign of Theodosius and later changed to face east, like most Christian churches.

The Temple of Jupiter—once mistakenly thought to belong to Helios—was located at the western end of the Great Court, raised another 7 meters (23 feet) on a 47.7-meter (156.5-foot) by 87.75-meter (287.9-foot) platform reached by a wide staircase. Under the Byzantines, it was also called the "Trilithon" because of the three massive stones in its foundation. Together with the forecourt and Great Court, it is also known as the Great Temple. The Temple of Jupiter was surrounded by a peristyle of 54 unfluted Corinthian columns: 10 in front and back and 19 along each side. It was damaged by earthquakes, destroyed and looted for stone under Theodosius, and 8 columns were taken to Constantinople (Istanbul) under Justinian for use in the Hagia Sophia. Three columns fell during the late 18th century, and 6 remain standing along its south side with their entablature. The capitals on the south side are nearly perfect, while the northern faces have been worn down by the Beqaa’s winter winds. The architrave and frieze blocks weigh up to 60 tonnes (66 tons) each, and one corner block weighs over 100 tonnes (110 tons). These were raised to a height of 19 meters (62.34 feet) above the ground. Roman cranes could not lift such heavy stones, so they may have been rolled into place along temporary earthen banks from the quarry. The Julio-Claudian emperors added to the temple’s sanctuary. In the mid-1st century, Nero built a tower-altar opposite the temple. In the early 2nd century, Trajan added the temple’s forecourt

Ecclesiastical history

Heliopolis (in Phoenicia; not to be confused with the Egyptian bishopric Heliopolis in Augustamnica) was a church area under Roman and Byzantine rule. It disappeared because of Islamic rule.

In 1701, Eastern Catholics (Byzantine Rite) created a new Eparchy of Baalbek. In 1964, this became the current Melkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Baalbek.

In the Latin Church, the old diocese was only nominally restored (no later than 1876) as the Titular archbishopric of Heliopolis (Latin)/Eliopoli (Curiate Italian). It was demoted in 1925 to a Titular bishopric, promoted again in 1932, and its name was changed in 1933 to avoid confusion with the Egyptian Heliopolis. The title was renamed to (non-Metropolitan) Titular archbishopric of Heliopolis in Phoenicia.

The title has not been assigned since 1965. It was held by:

• Titular Archbishop: Luigi Poggi (September 29, 1876 – January 22, 1877) on emeritate (promoted) as former Bishop of Rimini (Italy) (October 27, 1871 – September 29, 1876)
• Titular Archbishop: Mario Mocenni (July 24, 1877 – January 16, 1893) as papal diplomat: Apostolic Delegate to Colombia (August 14, 1877 – March 28, 1882), Apostolic Delegate to Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras (August 14, 1877 – March 28, 1882), Apostolic Delegate to Ecuador (August 14, 1877 – March 28, 1882), Apostolic Delegate to Peru and Bolivia (August 14, 1877 – March 28, 1882), Apostolic Delegate to Venezuela (August 14, 1877 – March 28, 1882), Apostolic Internuncio to Brazil (March 28, 1882 – October 18, 1882), created Cardinal-Priest of S. Bartolomeo all'Isola (January 19, 1893 – May 18, 1894), promoted Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina (May 18, 1894 – November 14, 1904)
• Titular Archbishop: Augustinus Accoramboni (June 22, 1896 – May 17, 1899), without prelature
• Titular Archbishop: Robert John Seton (June 22, 1903 – March 22, 1927), without prelature
• Titular Bishop: Gerald O'Hara (April 26, 1929 – November 26, 1935) as Auxiliary Bishop of Philadelphia (Pennsylvania, USA) (April 26, 1929 – November 26, 1935), later Bishop of Savannah (USA) (November 26, 1935 – January 5, 1937), restyled (only) Bishop of Savannah–Atlanta (USA) (January 5, 1937 – July 12, 1950), promoted Archbishop-Bishop of Savannah (July 12, 1950 – November 12, 1959), also Apostolic Nuncio (papal ambassador) to Ireland (November 27, 1951 – June 8, 1954), Apostolic Delegate to Great Britain (June 8, 1954 – July 16, 1963), and Titular Archbishop of Pessinus (November 12, 1959 – July 16, 1963)
• Titular Archbishop: Alcide Marina, C.M. (March 7, 1936 – September 18, 1950) as papal diplomat: Apostolic Delegate to Iran (March 7, 1936 – 1945), Apostolic Administrator of Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Constantinople (Turkey) (1945–1947), and Apostolic Delegate to Turkey (1945–1947), Apostolic Nuncio to Lebanon (1947 – September 18, 1950)
• Titular Archbishop: Daniel Rivero Rivero (1951 – May 23, 1960) (born Bolivia) on emeritate, formerly Titular Bishop of Tlous (May 17, 1922 – March 30, 1931) as Coadjutor Bishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Bolivia) (May 17, 1922 – March 30, 1931), succeeding as Bishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra (March 30, 1931 – February 3, 1940), Metropolitan Archbishop of Sucre (Bolivia) (February 3, 1940 – 1951)
• Titular Archbishop: Raffaele Calabria (July 12, 1960 – January 1, 1962) as Coadjutor Archbishop of Benevento (Italy) (July 12, 1960 – January 1, 1962), succeeding as Metropolitan Archbishop of Benevento (January 1, 1962 – May 24, 1982); previously Titular Archbishop of Soteropolis (May 6, 1950 – July 10, 1952) as Coadjutor Archbishop of Otranto (Italy) (May 6, 1950 – July 10, 1952), succeeding as Metropolitan Archbishop of Otranto (Italy) (July 10, 1952 – July 12, 1960)
• Titular Archbishop: Ottavio De Liva (April 18, 1962 – August 23, 1965) as papal diplomat: Apostolic Internuncio to Indonesia (April 18, 1962 – August 23, 1965).

Notable people

• Saint Barbara (273–306)
• Callinicus of Heliopolis (around 600 to around 680), chemist and inventor
• Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i (707–774)
• Qusta ibn Luqa (820–912), mathematician and translator
• Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir (1070s–1162)
• Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī (1547–1621), a scholar, philosopher, architect, mathematician, and astronomer from Lebanon and Iran
• Rahme Haider (1880s–1939), an American lecturer from Baalbek
• Khalil Mutran (1872–1949), poet and journalist
• Harfush dynasty
• Hussein Sharafeddine (born 1997), footballer

In popular culture

• Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem "Ruins at Balbec" is inspired by a painting titled "Six Detached Pillars of the Great Temple at Balbec" created by William Henry Bartlett.
• Ameen Rihani's novel The Book of Khalid (1911), the first English novel written by an Arab-American author, is set in Baalbek.
• The story of the 1984 novel Les fous de Baalbek (SAS, #74) by Gérard de Villiers takes place in Baalbek.

Twin towns

Baalbek is twinned with:

• Bari, Italy
• L'Aquila, Italy
• Bergama, Turkey
• Thrace, Greece
• Yogyakarta, Indonesia
• Qazvin, Iran