The Ellora Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Aurangabad, India. They are one of the largest groups of caves carved into rock in the world. The artwork in these caves dates from AD 600 to AD 1000 and includes caves dedicated to Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain religions. The complex is a key example of Indian rock-cut architecture. Some of the structures are not true caves because they lack a roof. Cave 16 contains the largest single rock excavation in the world, called the Kailash temple. This temple is shaped like a chariot and is dedicated to the god Shiva. The Kailash temple also has carvings of Hindu gods and pictures that show stories from two important Hindu epics.
There are more than 100 caves at the site, all carved from basalt rock in the Charanandri Hills. Of these, 34 are open to the public. These include 17 Hindu caves (numbered 13–29), 12 Buddhist caves (numbered 1–12), and 5 Jain caves (numbered 30–34). Each group represents religious beliefs and stories from the first 1,000 years of the second millennium CE, as well as monasteries connected to these religions. The caves were built close to one another, showing that different religions coexisted peacefully in ancient India. Most of the monuments were built during the Rashtrakuta dynasty (753–982 AD), which helped create the Hindu and Buddhist caves, and the Yadava dynasty (1187–1317), which built many of the Jain caves. Wealthy people, including kings, traders, and rich individuals, funded the construction.
The caves were used as temples and places for travelers to rest. Their location on an ancient trade route also made them an important center for trade in the Deccan region. The site is 29 kilometers (18 miles) northwest of Aurangabad and about 300 kilometers (190 miles) east-northeast of Mumbai. Today, the Ellora Caves, along with the nearby Ajanta Caves, are major tourist attractions in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra. They are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Etymology
Ellora, also known as Verul or Elura, is a shortened version of the ancient name Elloorpuram. The older name appears in historical records, such as the Baroda inscription from 812 AD, which describes "the greatness of this building" and states that "this great building was constructed on a hill by Krishnaraja at Elapura." The building mentioned in the inscription is the Kailasa temple. In Indian tradition, each cave has a name with a suffix such as Guha (Sanskrit), Lena, or Leni (Marathi), which means "cave."
It is also believed that the name may come from Ilvalapuram, which was named after the asura Ilvala, a ruler of the region who was defeated by Sage Agastya.
Location
The Ellora Caves are located in the state of Maharashtra, about 29 km (18 mi) northwest of the city of Aurangabad, 300 km (190 mi) east-northeast of Mumbai, 235 km (146 mi) from Pune, and approximately 100 km (62 mi) west of the Ajanta Caves, another UNESCO World Heritage Site. They are also about 2.3 km (1.4 mi) from the Grishneshwar Temple in India.
Ellora is found in a flat, rocky area of the Western Ghats, where ancient volcanic activity created layers of basalt rock known as the Deccan Traps. The volcanic activity that formed the west-facing cliff where the Ellora Caves are located happened during the Cretaceous period. The vertical cliff made it easier to access different layers of rock, allowing architects to select basalt with finer grains for more detailed carving.
Chronology
The construction of the Ellora caves has been studied since the British ruled India. However, the similar styles found in the Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain caves have made it hard to agree on the order in which they were built. Scholars disagree about two main things: first, whether the Buddhist or Hindu caves were carved first, and second, the order of construction within each religious tradition. Most experts agree by comparing the carving styles at Ellora to other dated cave temples in the Deccan region, records from ancient rulers, and writing found at archaeological sites near Ellora and in other parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. Geri Hockfield Malandra and other scholars say the Ellora caves were built in three main periods: an early Hindu period (around 550 to 600 CE), a Buddhist phase (around 600 to 730 CE), and a later Hindu and Jain phase (around 730 to 950 CE).
The earliest caves may have been built during the Traikutakas and Vakataka dynasties, with the Vakataka rulers known for helping build the Ajanta caves. However, some of the earliest caves, like Cave 29 (Hindu), were likely built by the Kalachuri dynasty, which was inspired by the god Shiva. The Buddhist caves were built by the Chalukya dynasty. Later Hindu and early Jain caves were built by the Rashtrakuta dynasty, while the last Jain caves were built by the Yadava dynasty, which also helped create other Jain cave temples.
The Hindu monuments: Caves 13–29
The Hindu caves were built during the Kalachuri period, from the mid-6th century to the end of the 8th century in two stages. Nine cave temples were carved out early in the 6th century, followed by four more caves (caves 17–29). Work began in the order of Caves 28, 27, and 19, then Caves 29 and 21, which were carved at the same time as Caves 20 and 26. Caves 17 and 28 were the last to start construction.
Later caves, 14, 15, and 16, were built during the Rashtrakuta period, with some dating to the 8th to 10th centuries. Construction began first in Caves 14 and 15, with Cave 16, known as the "world's largest single monolith," being the last of the three. This cave is part of the Kailash temple in Maharashtra, India. These caves were completed in the 8th century with the help of King Krishna I.
Work on the early Hindu caves began before any Buddhist or Jain caves. These early caves were usually dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, though carvings show that other Hindu gods and goddesses were also honored equally. A common feature of these temples was a rock-cut linga-yoni (symbol of Shiva) in the center of the shrine, surrounded by space for circumambulation (parikrama).
Cave 29, also called Dhumar Lena, is one of the earliest and largest excavations in Ellora. Early Hindu temple building focused on the "Vale Ganga," a natural waterfall integrated into the monument. The waterfall is visible from a carved balcony to the south and is described as "falling over great Shiva's brow" during monsoon season. The carvings in this cave are larger than life size, but they are described as "corpulent, stumpy with disproportionate limbs" compared to carvings in other Ellora caves.
Cave 21, also called Rameshwar Lena, is another early excavation. Its construction is credited to the local Kalachuri dynasty of Mahishmati. The cave was completed before the Rashtrakuta dynasty took over and expanded the caves at Ellora.
Although similar to other Ellora caves, Cave 21 has unique carvings, such as scenes from the story of goddess Parvati pursuing Shiva. Other carvings show Parvati and Shiva at leisure, Parvati’s wedding to Shiva, Shiva dancing, and Kartikeya (Skanda). The cave also features a large display of the Sapta Matrika, the seven mother goddesses of the Shakti tradition, flanked by Ganesha and Shiva. Other important Shakti goddesses, like Durga, are also present. The entrance is flanked by large sculptures of Ganga and Yamuna, representing two major Himalayan rivers and their cultural significance in India.
The cave is laid out symmetrically according to the mandapa square principle, with repeated geometric patterns throughout. The Shiva linga in the sanctum is equidistant from the statues of Ganga and Yamuna, forming an equilateral triangle. According to Carmel Berkson, this layout likely symbolizes the relationship between Brahman (the universal spirit) and Prakriti (the material world), a central idea in Hindu theology.
Cave 16, known as the Kailash temple, is a notable example of rock-cut architecture. It is entirely carved from a single rock and is dedicated to Shiva. Inspired by Mount Kailash, the temple has a gateway, an assembly hall, a multi-storey main temple with shrines, a space for circumambulation, a garbha-griha (sanctum) with a linga-yoni, and a spire shaped like Mount Kailash. Other shrines carved from the same rock honor Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, the ten avatars of Vishnu, Vedic gods like Indra and Surya, and non-Vedic deities like Ganesha and Durga. The basement includes carvings of Krishna’s childhood, important in Vaishnavism.
The Kailash temple is a freestanding, multi-level complex twice the size of the Parthenon in Athens. Artists removed about 3,000,000 cubic feet of stone (85,000 cubic meters) to build it. The temple is attributed to Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, though it shows influences of Pallava architecture. The courtyard measures 82 meters by 46 meters (280 by 160 feet) and is 30 meters (106 feet) high. The entrance has a low gopuram, and the central shrine has a flat-roofed mandapa with 16 pillars and a Dravidian shikhara. A statue of Nandi, Shiva’s mount, stands on a porch. Walls in the main temple depict scenes from the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
The Kailash temple is considered a major example of ancient Indian temple construction and was called by Carmel Berkson "a wonder of the world" among rock-cut monuments.
Cave 15, also called the Dashavatara temple, is another important excavation completed after Cave 14 (Ravan ki Khai). Its layout and cells resemble Buddhist Caves 11 and 12, suggesting it may have originally been a Buddhist cave. However, features like a Nrtya Mandapa (classical dance pavilion) at its entrance indicate otherwise. Hindu images have been found in Buddhist Caves 11, and Hindu deities are common in Buddhist caves in the region. This overlap may be due to shared architects or planned conversions.
According to Geri Malandra, the Buddhist caves at Ellora were built in a place already used as a Hindu pilgrimage site, not the other way around. Most caves lack inscriptions, making their original purpose unclear.
The Hindu temple in Cave 15 has an open court with a free-standing monolithic mandapa in the center and a two-storeyed temple at the rear. Large panels on the upper floor show themes like the ten avatars of Vishnu. An inscription of Dantidurga, important for dating the temple, is on the back wall of the front mandapa. The finest relief depicts Vishnu in the form of Narasimha killing Hiranyakashipu, a Rastrakoot dynasty sculpture. Other reliefs include scenes of Gangadhara, Shiva and Parvati’s marriage, Tripurantika (a Shakti tradition figure), Markendeya, Garuda, aspects of life, Nandi, dancing Shiva, Andhakasura, Govardhanadhari, and Gajendravarada. The panels are arranged in pairs.
The Buddhist monuments: Caves 1–12
These caves are located on the southern side and were built between 630 and 700 CE, or 600–730 CE. At first, people thought Buddhist caves were the oldest structures built between the fifth and eighth centuries. Caves 1–5 were thought to be built first (400–600 CE), and caves 6–12 later (650–750 CE). However, modern scholars now believe Hindu caves were built before Buddhist ones. The earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6, followed by 5, 2, 3, 5 (right wing), 4, 7, 8, 10, and 9. Caves 11 and 12, also called Do Thal and Tin Thal, were the last to be built.
Eleven of the twelve Buddhist caves are viharas, which are monasteries with prayer halls. These are large, multi-story buildings carved into the mountain, with rooms for living, sleeping, cooking, and other activities. The monastery caves include shrines with carvings of Gautama Buddha, bodhisattvas, and saints. In some caves, sculptors carved the stone to look like wood.
Caves 5, 10, 11, and 12 are important Buddhist caves. Cave 5 is unique because it was designed as a hall with two parallel benches in the center and a Buddha statue at the back. This design is rare in India, with only Cave 5 and Cave 11 of the Kanheri Caves sharing this layout. Caves 1 through 9 are monasteries, while Cave 10, called the Vīśvakarmā Cave, is a major prayer hall.
Caves 11 and 12 are three-story Mahayana monastery caves. They have idols, mandalas carved into walls, and images of goddesses and Bodhisattvas linked to Vajrayana Buddhism. These caves show that Vajrayana and Tantra ideas were well known in South Asia by the 8th century CE.
Cave 10, also called the "Vishvakarma cave" or "Carpenter's Cave," was built around 650 CE. It is named for its wooden-like appearance, created by carving the rock to look like wooden beams. The entrance leads to a large prayer hall called a chaitya-griha, with a 15-foot statue of Buddha seated in a teaching pose at the center.
Cave 10 combines a monastery with a chapel-like worship hall. It has eight smaller rooms, four on the back wall and four on the right, and a portico at the front. It is the only Buddhist cave with a dedicated chaitya-griha and is similar in design to Caves 19 and 26 of Ajanta. The cave also has a gavaksha (arched window) and a connection to Cave 9 of Ellora.
The main hall of the Vishvakarma cave is shaped like a half-circle and divided into a central area and side aisles by 28 octagonal columns. At the back of the hall is a stupa with a large seated Buddha in a teaching pose. A carved Bodhi tree is behind the Buddha. The hall’s vaulted roof has carved ribs that mimic wooden ones. Above the pillars, carvings of Naga queens and relief artwork of entertainers, dancers, and musicians are visible.
The front of the prayer hall has a rock-cut court entered by steps. The entrance has a carved facade with Indian motifs, such as apsaras and meditating monks. Pillared porticos on the upper level have small rooms behind them. The prayer hall’s corridor has columns with large square shafts and capitals shaped like vases and foliage. Idols of deities like Maitreya, Tara, Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, Bhrkuti, and Mahamayuri are carved in the style of the Pala dynasty from eastern India. Some southern Indian influences are also visible in the cave’s artwork.
The Jain monuments: Caves 30–34
At the north end of Ellora are five Jain caves belonging to the Digambara sect. These caves were carved between the ninth and early tenth centuries. They are smaller than nearby Buddhist and Hindu caves but have detailed carvings. These Jain caves and later Hindu caves were built around the same time and share similar features, such as pillared verandas, symmetrical halls, and areas for worship. Unlike Hindu temples, the Jain caves focus on images of the twenty-four tirthankaras, spiritual leaders who achieved freedom from the cycle of rebirth. The caves also include carvings of gods, goddesses, nature deities like yaksha and yakshi, and human devotees from Jain stories of the first millennium CE.
According to José Pereira, the five caves were actually 23 separate excavations made over many years. Thirteen of these are in the Indra Sabha, six in the Jagannatha Sabha, and the rest in the Chhota Kailash. Pereira studied many sources and found that the Jain caves at Ellora likely began being built in the late eighth century. Work on the caves continued past the tenth century and into the thirteenth century, until the region was invaded by the Delhi Sultanate. Evidence of this includes inscriptions from 1235 CE, where a donor mentions converting a place called Charanadri into a holy site for Jains.
Important Jain shrines include the Chhota Kailash (cave 30, with four excavations), the Indra Sabha (cave 32, with thirteen excavations), and the Jagannatha Sabha (cave 33, with four excavations). Cave 31 is an unfinished hall with four pillars, and cave 34 is a small cave connected to the side of cave 33.
The Jain caves include some of the earliest images of the Samavasarana, a hall where Tirthankaras teach after gaining complete knowledge. Another feature is the repeated pairing of two important Jain figures, Parsvanatha and Bahubali, which appears 19 times in the carvings. Other important carvings show deities like Sarasvati, Sri, Saudharmendra (Indra), Sarvanubhuti, Gomukha, Ambika, Chakreshvari, Padmavati, Ksetrapala, and Hanuman.
The Chhota Kailash, or "little Kailash," is named for its carvings, which resemble those in the Kailash Temple. This cave was likely built in the early ninth century, around the same time as the lower part of the Indra Sabha. It includes large carvings of Indra, the king of the heavens, shown with eight or twelve arms, wearing jewelry and a crown. Indra’s arms are in poses similar to those of dancing Shiva in nearby Hindu caves, but the carvings clearly show Indra, not Shiva. The entrance also features other deities, musicians, and dancers.
Art historian Lisa Owen questioned whether music and dance were part of ninth-century Jainism, as Jain teachings focus on meditation and asceticism. Some scholars, like Rajan, suggested that cave 30 may have originally been a Hindu temple later converted to a Jain shrine. Owen, however, believes the lively artwork in this temple reflects the Samavasarana doctrine in Jainism.
Similarities between Jain and Hindu myths have caused confusion. For example, the Hindu Mahabharata describes Indra’s home as a paradise filled with heroes, dancers, and artisans. This imagery appears in cave 30, like in Hindu caves, but the central part of the temple shows more Jain elements, such as meditating figures and Jinas, where worship would take place.
Cave 31 has four pillars, a small shrine, and carvings, but it was never finished. On the walls are images of Parshvanatha guarded by a seven-hooded yaksha and Bahubali. Inside the shrine is an idol of Mahavira, seated on a lion throne with a chakra (wheel) in the center. On the shrine’s sides are a yaksha on an elephant and a yakshi holding a child on her lap.
The Indra Sabha (cave 32), built in the ninth century, is a two-story cave with a monolithic shrine in its courtyard. Nineteenth-century historians mistakenly thought the yakshas in this cave were images of Indra from Buddhist and Hindu art, leading to its name "Indra Sabha." Indra is important in Jainism as one of 64 heavenly rulers and the king of the first Jain heaven, Saudharmakalpa, according to the Adipurana, a Jain holy text.
The Indra Sabha is historically significant because it shows evidence of worship by the Jain community, including rituals held on its upper level. The temple has many carvings, such as lotus flowers on the ceiling. On the upper level is an image of Ambika, the yakshi of Neminath, seated on a lion under a mango tree. The center of the shrine shows four tirthankaras—Rishabhanatha, Neminatha, Parshvanatha, and Mahavira—aligned with the cardinal directions, forming a place of worship.
The Jagannatha Sabha (cave 33) is the second-largest Jain cave at Ellora, built in the ninth century. It has twelve large pillars and elephant heads carved from a single rock. The hall includes square pillars, fluted columns, and intricate carvings. Inside are statues of Parshvanatha and Mahavira, the last two tirthankaras.
Some inscriptions in cave 34 (J26, according to José Pereira) are not yet fully understood but may date to between 800 and 850 CE. Others, like those by Sri Nagavarma, are believed to be from the ninth or tenth century. This cave has a large image of Parshvanatha with four attendants, two holding fly-whisks. Nearby are yaksha and yakshi figures. At the back is a bearded figure with offerings shaped like pindas or laddus, suggesting a Jain ritual. Parshvanatha is paired with Bahubali, and the cave includes carvings of musicians playing horns, drums, conchs, trumpets, and cymbals.
Visitors, desecration and damage
Historical records from the centuries after their creation show that these caves were visited often, especially because they were near a trade route. For example, Ellora was known to be visited by Buddhist monks in the 9th and 10th centuries. A 10th-century writer from Baghdad named Al-Masudi incorrectly called it Aladra, describing it as a place with a large temple, a site for Indian religious pilgrimages, and thousands of small rooms where worshippers lived. In 1352 CE, records by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah mention that he camped at the site. Other historical accounts were written by Firishta, Thevenot (1633–67), Niccolao Manucci (1653–1708), Charles Warre Malet (1794), and Seely (1824). Some descriptions highlight the importance of Ellora but include errors about its construction. For example, Niccolao Manucci, a Venetian traveler, claimed in his writings that the Ellora caves were built by ancient Chinese people based on his observations and what others told him. During Mughal times, Ellora was a well-known place: Emperor Aurangzeb and other Mughal nobles often had picnics there with their families. Mustaid Khan, a court official of Aurangzeb, noted that people visited the area year-round, especially during the rainy season. He described many carved images with lifelike forms on the ceilings and walls but observed that the monuments were in poor condition despite having strong foundations. There is no historical record of Aurangzeb trying to destroy the Kailashanatha temple at Ellora, contrary to some later oral stories.
The Lilacharitra, a Marathi text from the late 13th century, is the first record stating that active use of Ellora stopped in the 13th century. Islamic court records mention that Deogiri, the capital of the Yadava dynasty and about 10 kilometers from Ellora, was attacked repeatedly during this time and fell to the Delhi Sultanate in 1294 CE. According to José Pereira, evidence shows that work on the Jain caves at Ellora continued under Singhana, who ruled the Yadava dynasty from around 1200 to 1247 CE, and these caves were used by Jain visitors and worshippers into the 13th century. However, Jain religious activity ended after the region came under Islamic rule in the late 13th century.
The Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain monuments at Ellora show significant damage, especially to the idols, while detailed carvings on pillars and natural scenes on walls remain intact. The destruction of idols and images is linked to the 15th to 17th centuries, when Muslim armies in the Deccan region destroyed religious images as part of iconoclasm. Geri Malandra explains that this destruction was due to the belief that Hindu and Buddhist shrines’ detailed human images were offensive. Muslim historians from the Islamic Sultanate period described widespread damage and destruction of idols and artwork in the region. Some Muslims of that time expressed concern about the destruction, calling it a violation of beauty, according to Carl Ernst.
Ellora inscriptions
Several inscriptions at Ellora date from the 6th century and later. One well-known example is an inscription by Rashtrakuta Dantidurga, who lived around 753 to 757 CE. It is located on the back wall of the front mandapa of Cave 15 and mentions that he offered prayers at the temple. Jagannatha Sabha, which is Jain cave 33, has three inscriptions that list the names of monks and donors. A Parshvanath temple on the hill contains an inscription from 1247 CE that records the name of a donor from Vardhanapura.
The Great Kailasa temple (Cave 16) is believed to be built by Krishna I, who lived around 757 to 783 CE. He was the successor and uncle of Dantidurga. A copper plate inscription from 812 CE, found in Baroda, Gujarat, describes a large building constructed on a hill by Krishnaraja at Ellora. The inscription includes a statement by the architect, who was surprised and said, "How did I manage to build this?"
Painted carvings and paintings
The carvings at Ellora were heavily painted long ago. The rock was covered with a special type of plaster called lime plaster. This plaster was then painted. Some of the plaster and paint remain in certain areas today.
In popular culture
The well-known Bengali filmmaker and writer Satyajit Ray wrote the mystery novel Kailashey Kelenkari in 1974. The story follows a fictional detective named Feluda, who goes to the Ellora caves to investigate a crime involving the illegal trading of historical items from Indian temples, including the largest cave at Ellora, the Kailasa Temple. In 2007, Satyajit Ray’s son, Sandip Ray, made a movie based on the book with the same name.
In art and literature
Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832 includes a plate titled "Skeletal Group in the Ramedwur, Caves of Ellora, supposed to represent the nuptials of Siva and Parvati." The plate was created by George Cattermole and engraved by W. Kelsall. It is accompanied by a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon, which is based on a translation from the Siva-Pooraun. This artwork is located in cave 21.