Cusco, also spelled Cuzco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Sacred Valley of the Andes mountains and the Huatanay and Urubamba rivers. It is the capital and largest city of the Cusco Province and Cusco Department. Historically, it has been one of the most important cultural, economic, and political centers in Peru.
The city was first built in the 12th century as the capital of the Inca Empire. In the 16th century, Spanish explorers took control of the region and rebuilt the city on March 23, 1534. Much of the city was built on top of structures left by the Inca Empire. In 1983, UNESCO named Cusco a World Heritage Site, calling it the "City of Cusco." Today, it is a popular tourist destination, welcoming over 2 million visitors each year. It is also a gateway to many Incan ruins, including Machu Picchu, which is one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. According to the 1993 Constitution of Peru, Cusco is recognized as the country's Historical Capital.
Cusco is the seventh-largest city in Peru. In 2017, it had a population of 428,450 people. It is the largest city in the Peruvian Andes and part of the seventh-largest metropolitan area in the country. The city is located at an elevation of about 3,400 meters (11,200 feet). The largest district within Cusco is the Cusco District, which had a population of 114,630 in 2017. This district makes up about one-fourth of the city's total population.
Spelling and etymology
The original name of this city is Qusqu. This name was used by people who spoke Southern Quechua, but it comes from the Aymara language. The word is based on the phrase "qusqu wanka," which means "rock of the owl." This name is connected to a story about the Ayar siblings. In the story, Ayar Awqa (also called Ayar Auca) gained wings and flew to where the city would later be built. He then turned into a rock to show that his ayllu, or family group, now owned the land.
Spanish soldiers who arrived in the area used the local name but wrote it using Spanish sounds, spelling it "Cuzco" or, less often, "Cozco." During the colonial period, "Cuzco" was the most common spelling on official papers and records, though "Cusco" was also used. At that time, "Cuzco" was close to how the name was pronounced in Quechua.
Over time, both Spanish and Quechua pronunciation have changed. The Spanish "z" sound is no longer similar to the Quechua pronunciation. In 1976, the city's mayor passed a rule requiring the use of "Cusco" instead of the traditional spelling in official documents. Nineteen years later, on June 23, 1990, local leaders officially changed the spelling to "Qosqo," which is closer to the Quechua pronunciation. However, later governments did not continue using this new spelling.
There is no single official spelling of the city's name worldwide. In English-language books, both "Cuzco" and "Cusco" are used. The Oxford Dictionary of English and Merriam-Webster Dictionary prefer "Cuzco," and this spelling is more common in academic writing. The city's airport code is "CUZ," which reflects the older Spanish spelling.
Symbols
The official Flag of Cusco has seven horizontal stripes in the colors red, orange, yellow, green, sky blue, blue, and violet. These colors represent a rainbow. This flag was introduced in 1973 by Raúl Montesinos Espejo to celebrate the 25th anniversary of his Tawantinsuyo Radio station. Because people liked it, the Municipality of Cusco officially adopted it in 1978. In 2021, the flag was updated to include the golden Sol de Echenique, a symbol linked to the city's history.
The Coat of Arms of Cusco was officially adopted in 1986 and is used by the city, province, and region of Cusco. It includes symbols from both Inca and Spanish traditions. Earlier, the city's arms showed a golden castle on a red background with eight condors around it. The modern design, created in 1986, has the Sol de Echenique, a golden sun emblem, at the center. This symbol shows the city's connection to its Inca past.
The Anthem of Cusco was written in 1944 by Roberto Ojeda Campana, with lyrics by Luis Nieto Miranda. It became the city's official anthem and has been performed at public events since then. In 1991, the anthem was translated into Quechua by Faustino Espinoza Navarro and Mario Mejía Waman. The anthem is now performed in both Spanish and Quechua, showing the city's cultural diversity and history. In 2019, the Municipality of Cusco declared that performing the anthem in Quechua at public events is important for its cultural and historical value.
History
Cusco was ruled by the Kingdom of Cusco from 1197 to 1438. The Inca Empire took over from 1438 to 1532. Spain controlled the region as the Governorate of New Castile and Viceroyalty of Peru from 1532 to 1700. Spain’s Bourbon rulers governed the Viceroyalty of Peru from 1700 to 1808. During 1808 to 1813, France’s Bonaparte ruled the Viceroyalty of Peru. Spain’s Bourbon rulers returned from 1813 to 1821. Peru became a protectorate from 1821 to 1822. The country of Peru existed from 1822 to 1836. The Peru–Bolivian Confederation, also called the Republic of South Peru, lasted from 1836 to 1839. Peru has been a country since 1839 to the present.
The Killke people lived in the region from 900 to 1200 AD. They built the fortress at Saksaywaman, a walled complex outside Cusco, around 1100 AD. The Inca later expanded and used the fortress in the 13th century. In 2008, archaeologists found the ruins of a temple, roadway, and aqueduct system at Saksaywaman. The temple covered about 2,700 square feet and had 11 rooms that likely held idols and mummies. This shows the site was used for religious purposes. Earlier excavations in 2007 found another temple near the fortress, proving the site was also used for military and religious activities over many years.
Cusco was an important center for indigenous people. It was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th century to 1532. Some believe the city was designed to look like a puma, a sacred animal. How the city was built or how its large stones were moved remains unknown. Under the Inca, the city had two parts: the hurin and hanan. Each part covered two of the four provinces of the empire—Chinchasuyu (northwest), Antisuyu (northeast), Kuntisuyu (southwest), and Qullasuyu (southeast). A road connected each section of the city to the same section of the empire.
Local leaders were required to build a house in Cusco and live there for part of the year. They could only stay in the section of the city that matched the region they ruled. After Pachacuti became ruler, when an Inca died, one son inherited the title, and the other relatives managed the property. Each title holder had to build a new house and add new lands to the empire to keep land for their family.
According to Inca stories, Pachacuti rebuilt Cusco and turned the small city-state into the large empire of Tawantinsuyu. However, archaeologists believe the city grew slowly over time before Pachacuti. The city was planned with two rivers flowing around it. Some researchers think this layout was used in other places.
After the death of Huayna Capac in 1528, Cusco was controlled by Huáscar during the Inca Civil War. In April 1532, Atahualpa’s generals captured Cusco in the Battle of Quipaipan. Nineteen months later, Spanish explorers invaded the city after killing Atahualpa. They took control of Cusco.
In May 1533, the first three Spanish soldiers arrived in Cusco after the Battle of Cajamarca. They collected items from Atahualpa’s Ransom Room. On November 15, 1533, Francisco Pizarro officially arrived in Cusco. He described the city as having beautiful buildings, long and straight streets, and a large square surrounded by palaces. Spanish soldiers noted that Inca stone work was more advanced than their own. The fortress had three walls made of large stone blocks. A river ran through the city, and the most impressive building was the Sun Temple, covered in gold and surrounded by religious buildings. Spanish soldiers looted palaces and temples, including the royal mummies in the Coricancha.
Pizarro gave Manco Inca the Incan fringe as the new leader of Peru. He encouraged some soldiers to settle in Cusco and gave them land grants. Alcaldes and regidores were established on March 24, 1534, including Gonzalo Pizarro and Juan Pizarro. Pizarro left 90 soldiers in Cusco and traveled to Jauja with Manco Inca.
Pizarro renamed the city “the very noble and great city of Cuzco.” After the Spanish arrived, many buildings combined Spanish and Inca styles, such as the Santa Clara and San Blas neighborhoods. The Spanish destroyed many Inca buildings and used their stones to build a new city. These stones are still visible today.
Father Vincente de Valverde became the Bishop of Cusco and built a cathedral facing the plaza. He supported the construction of the Santo Domingo Convent on the ruins of the Coricancha and a convent near the former House of the Virgins of the Sun.
In 1536, Manco Inca Yupanqui, a leader of the Sapa Inca, captured Cusco from the Spanish during the Siege of Cuzco. The siege lasted 10 months but failed. Manco Inca’s forces controlled the city for only a few days before retreating to Vilcabamba, the capital of the Neo-Inca State. His state lasted 36 more years, but he never returned to Cusco. During Spanish rule, many Incas died from smallpox, a disease to which they had no immunity.
Cusco was built on layers of history. The Inca Empire was built on Killke structures. The Spanish replaced Inca temples with Catholic churches and Inca palaces with homes for Spanish settlers.
Cusco became the center of Spanish colonization and the spread of Christianity in the Andes. It grew wealthy from agriculture, cattle raising, mining, and trade with Spain. The Spanish built churches, convents, a cathedral, a university, and an archdiocese.
Earthquakes disrupted the city’s growth. In 1650, a strong earthquake destroyed most colonial-era buildings. During this
Geography
Cusco is in the central Andes Mountains in southern Peru. Its elevation is about 3,400 meters (11,200 feet). North of Cusco is the Vilcabamba mountain range. These mountains reach heights of 4,000 to 6,000 meters (13,000 to 20,000 feet). The highest mountain there is Salcantay, which is 6,271 meters (20,574 feet) tall. It is located about 60 kilometers (37 miles) northwest of Cusco.
Cusco has a subtropical highland climate (Köppen: Cwb, Trewartha: Cwll). It is generally dry and temperate, with two main seasons: winter and summer. Winter runs from April to September, with plenty of sunshine and occasional nighttime frosts. July is the coldest month, with an average temperature of 9.7°C (49.5°F). Summer lasts from October to March, with warm temperatures and lots of rain. November is the warmest month, averaging 13.3°C (55.9°F). Even though frost and hail happen often, the last snow was reported in June 1911 and July 1968. Temperatures usually range from 0.2°C to 20.9°C (32.4°F to 69.6°F). However, the extreme temperatures recorded are between -8.9°C and 30°C (16.0°F to 86.0°F). July has the most sunshine, similar to January in the Northern Hemisphere. February, which is like August there, has the least sunshine.
In 2006, Cusco was found to have the highest average ultraviolet light levels among all populated places on Earth.
Government
During the Inca period, Cusco was the most important political center in the region. It was where the Inca Empire was ruled, and it was home to the political and religious leaders. After the Spanish arrived, Cusco lost some of its importance because Francisco Pizarro chose to build the capital of the new territories in Lima. Lima was better connected to the sea and to the Spanish homeland. However, Cusco remained significant in the political system of Spanish rule. It was the first city in the Viceroyalty to have a bishop. Its role in trade routes during Spanish rule helped keep it politically important. Cusco was the capital of the corregimiento in these areas, later the Intendancy of Cusco, and finally the Royal Audience of Cusco.
During the Republic, Cusco's political influence decreased because it was far from the capital, the coast, and the major trade routes of the 19th and 20th centuries. However, it stayed the main city in southern Peru, though it became less important than Arequipa, which had better connections to the rest of the country. Cusco has always been the capital of the Cusco region.
Politically, election results from the second half of the 20th century showed that Cusco supported leftist parties in Peru. In the 1970s and 1980s, a socialist leader named Daniel Estrada Pérez united this political group under the United Left alliance. After his death, Cusco became a major city for groups like the Peruvian Nationalist Party and the Broad Front for Justice, Life and Liberty, as well as regional movements. Traditional parties, such as the Peruvian Aprista Party and Acción Popular, sometimes won elections. Right-wing groups, such as the Popular Christian Party and Fujimorism, had little influence in Cusco's elected leadership.
Demographics
In the 1840s, the population was 47,000 inhabitants. In 2007, the city had about 348,935 people, and in 2017, it had about 428,450 people, according to INEI.
Economy
Economic activity in Cusco includes farming, particularly the growing of maize and native tubers. Local industries focus on extracting resources and producing food and drinks, such as beer, carbonated water, coffee, and chocolate. However, the most important economic activity for Cusco’s people is welcoming tourists, supported by improving infrastructure and services. Cusco is the second city in the country with full employment. Recently, the city has expanded its industrial sector.
Tourism has played a key role in Cusco’s economy since the early 2000s, bringing over 1.2 million visitors each year. In 2019, Cusco became the region in Peru with the most tourists, receiving more than 2.7 million visitors. In 2002, tourism brought in $837 million for Cusco. By 2009, this amount had grown to $2.47 billion. Most visitors come to explore the city and the Incan ruins, especially Machu Picchu, which is one of the New Seven Wonders of the Modern World.
Culture
The center of the city has preserved many buildings, squares, and streets from before the arrival of Europeans, as well as structures built during the colonial period. Because of this, the city was named a National Cultural Heritage site in 1972 by Supreme Resolution No. 2900-72-ED. In 1983, the UNESCO World Heritage Committee decided to declare this area a World Heritage Site. It includes a central area that is the main part of the site and a surrounding area called a buffer zone.
One of the ways the Incas planned the city of Cusco was by using the natural landscape as a guide. They adapted their designs to fit the rough and uneven land at an elevation of 3,399 meters above sea level.
The native language spoken in the area is Quechua, but most people in the city speak Spanish. The Quechua people are the last living descendants of the Inca Empire.
Cusco has several important museums, including:
• Pre-Columbian Art Museum
• Machu Picchu Museum
• Inka Museum
• Regional Historical Museum of Cusco
• Center of the Traditional Textiles of Cusco
Some museums are also located in churches, such as the Museum and Convent of San Francisco and the Museum of Qoricancha Temple.
The most common religion practiced in Cusco is Catholicism. The Inca religion is also followed by the Quechua people. The city hosts major religious events, such as the Inti Raymi or Festival of the Sun, which takes place every June 24 on the Sacsayhuamán esplanade during the winter solstice, known as the solar new year.
Most people in Cusco belong to the Catholic Church, and the city is the seat of the archbishop. The oldest and largest cathedral in Cusco is the Cusco Cathedral, which is home to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cusco. Other important sites include:
• Museum of Religious Art of Arzobispado
• Convent of Santo Domingo, built on the Coricancha temple
• Sacsayhuamán Esplanade, where the Inti Raymi festival occurs
As the capital of the Inca Empire, Cusco was an important agricultural area. It was a natural reserve for thousands of native Peruvian species, including about 3,000 types of potatoes grown by local people. Modern restaurants in Cusco use both traditional Andean ingredients and international flavors. A popular local dish is cuy, or guinea pig.
The local food in Cusco includes many dishes that mix traditions from before the Inca Empire, the Inca period, the colonial era, and modern times. These dishes are part of Andean Peruvian cuisine and reflect southern Peruvian culture. Common dishes include tapia, adobo, rocoto relleno, kapchi, lawas (creams made with corn or chuño), and timpu, a dish from Cusco served during Carnival. Other foods include:
• Chicha de jora
• Frutillada
Chiri Uchu is a traditional dish eaten only during specific festivals, such as Inti Raymi and Corpus Christi in June. It combines Andean ingredients with flavors brought by Spanish conquistadors. The dish includes meats like cuy, boiled chicken, charqui, morcilla, salchicha, potatoes, cheese, corn cake, fish roe, and lake algae.
A folkloric institution was founded in 1924. It is the most important folkloric group in Cusco and was recognized by the Peruvian government as the first folkloric institution in the country. It is also considered a Living Cultural Heritage of the Cusco region. The group is part of the Decentralized Directorate of Culture of the Cusco Regional Government and was created by Directoral Resolution No. 021/INC-Cusco on March 10, 2009. It performs over 50 concerts yearly at the Cusco Municipal Theater.
The most popular sport in Cusco is football (soccer), with three main clubs. Cienciano plays in the Liga 1 (First Division) and is the only Peruvian club to win an international tournament, the 2003 Copa Sudamericana and 2004 Recopa Sudamericana. Another historic team is Deportivo Garcilaso, which joined the Liga 1 in 2022 after winning the Copa Perú 2022. Cusco Football Club, previously known as Real Garcilaso, played in the First Division from 2012 to 2021 after winning the Copa Perú in 2011. It returned to the Liga 1 in 2022 after winning the Second Division of Peru. Cusco also hosted the 2004 Copa América, where Colombia and Uruguay played for third place.
The International Short Film Festival (FENACO) was an important film festival in southern Peru. It began in 2004 and was held every November in Cusco. Originally a national event focused on short films (up to 30 minutes), it became international after gaining attention from filmmakers and producers worldwide. By its sixth edition, it featured 354 short films from 37 countries.
Media
In the city of Cusco, the media plays an important role in solving local problems, teaching people about important issues, and helping to keep cultural traditions safe. Media in Cusco includes newspapers, radio, television, and online platforms that serve both Spanish-speaking and Quechua-speaking people. These media outlets often cover topics like local news, culture, tourism, and the rights of indigenous communities, as Cusco is a historic city known for its popularity with visitors.
Local newspapers, such as Diario del Cusco and Diario El Sol del Cusco (El Sol), provide news about the region. National newspapers like El Comercio and La República also report on social, political, and economic issues in Cusco. Indigenous communities in Cusco often receive news through Quechua-language media, such as Cronicawan, which helps more people access information and learn about their culture.
Radio stations like Radio Tawantinsuyo and Radio Universal broadcast news, music, and talk shows, making radio a major way people get information. Local television channels share regional news, and people in Cusco are using digital tools, such as social media and online news websites, more often.
Main sites
The indigenous Killke culture built the walled complex of Sacsayhuamán around 1100. The Killke also constructed a major temple near Sacsayhuamán, along with an aqueduct (Pukyus) and a roadway that connected older structures. Later, the Inca expanded Sacsayhuamán.
In 1535, the Spanish explorer Pizarro attacked and destroyed much of the Inca city. Today, remains of the Inca palace, the Temple of the Sun (Qurikancha), and the Temple of the Virgins of the Sun still exist. In some cases, Inca building foundations were stronger during earthquakes than modern foundations in Peru. A notable Spanish colonial building in the city is the Cathedral of Santo Domingo.
Important nearby Inca sites include Machu Picchu, which is believed to have been the winter home of Pachacuti. Visitors can reach Machu Picchu by walking the Inca Trail or by train. Another site is Ollantaytambo, known as a fortress.
Less-visited ruins include Incahuasi, the highest Inca site at 3,980 meters (13,060 feet); Vilcabamba, the Inca capital after the Spanish captured Cusco; the sculpture garden at Ñusta Hisp'ana (also called Chuqip'allta or Yuraq Rumi); Tipón, with terraces that still have working water channels; and other sites like Willkaraqay, Patallaqta, Chuqik'iraw, Moray, Vitcos, and many others.
The area around Cusco, in the Watanay Valley, is known for gold mining and agriculture, including crops like corn, barley, quinoa, tea, and coffee.
Because of its age and historical significance, the city center has many buildings, plazas, streets, and churches from colonial times, as well as some pre-Columbian structures. This led to its designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983.
This neighborhood is home to artisans, workshops, and shops. It is one of the most scenic areas in the city. Its narrow, steep streets have old houses built by the Spanish on top of Inca foundations. The neighborhood has a square and the oldest church in Cusco, built in 1563, which features a carved wooden pulpit considered a masterpiece of colonial woodwork.
The neighborhood’s Quechua name is Tuq'ukachi, which means “the opening of the salt.”
This street is the most visited by tourists. The palace of Inca Roca, once converted into the Archbishop’s residence, was located on Hatun Rumiyoq (“the one with the big stone”).
Along this street, which runs from the Plaza de Armas to the Barrio de San Blas, visitors can see the Stone of Twelve Angles, a famous example of ancient stonework and a symbol of the city’s history.
The first complex of this building was destroyed in an earthquake in 1650. It was rebuilt and completed in 1675. The cloisters, choir stalls, colonial paintings, and wood carvings are highlights of the site, now a popular museum. An elaborate gold and gemstone monstrance, weighing 22 kilograms (49 pounds) and standing 130 centimeters (51 inches) tall, is also on display.
The first cathedral in Cusco, the Iglesia del Triunfo, was built in 1539 on the foundations of the Palace of Viracocha Inca. Today, it serves as an auxiliary chapel to the main cathedral.
The main cathedral of the city was built between 1560 and 1664. Stone from nearby quarries was used, along with some red granite from Sacsayhuamán. The cathedral has late-Gothic, Baroque, and plateresque interiors and is known for its colonial goldwork and carved wooden altars. It also houses a collection of paintings from the Cuzco School, including a famous painting of the Last Supper featuring guinea pig, a traditional Andean dish. The cathedral is the seat of the Archdiocese of Cusco.
Known as the “Square of the warrior” by the Inca, this plaza was the site of important events, such as Francisco Pizarro’s declaration of the conquest of Cusco. It was also where Túpac Amaru II, a leader of indigenous resistance, was executed. The Spanish built stone arcades around the plaza, which remain today. The main cathedral and the Church of La Compañía both open directly onto the plaza.
The cast iron fountain in Plaza de Armas was made by Janes, Beebe & Co.
This church, the Church of the Society of Jesus, was started by the Jesuits in 1576 on the foundations of the Amarucancha, the palace of Inca ruler Wayna Qhapaq. It is considered one of the finest examples of colonial baroque style in the Americas. The church’s stone façade and gold-covered wooden main altar are notable. It was built over an underground chapel and contains a valuable collection of Cusco School paintings, the first school of art in Peru and the Americas.
The church is located in the Plaza de Armas, to the left of the Cusco Cathedral, which is home to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cusco.
The Coricancha, also called Qurikancha, was the most important temple to the Sun God (Inti) during the Inca Empire. Ancient records by Garcilaso de la Vega describe the temple as having a large golden disc covered in precious stones that represented the Sun God. Spanish accounts mention a sacred garden in front of the temple with golden plants, silver stems, golden corn, and life-sized golden llamas and herders.
The temple was destroyed by Spanish invaders who wanted to remove the city’s wealth and religious symbols. Today, only a curved outer wall and parts of the inner temple remain. On this site, colonists later built the Convent of Santo Domingo in the Renaissance style, featuring a baroque tower. The convent’s interior includes a
Infrastructure
Cusco's main international airport is Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport. It serves 5 domestic destinations and 3 international ones. The airport is named after Peruvian pilot Alejandro Velasco Astete, who made the first flight across the Andes in 1925 when he traveled from Lima to Cusco. This airport is the second busiest in Peru, following Lima's Jorge Chávez International Airport. Soon, it will be replaced by Chinchero International Airport, which will connect Cusco to North America and Europe.
Cusco is connected by rail to Juliaca and Arequipa through the Southern Section of the Southern Railway. The end point of this line in Cusco is the Wánchaq station. From the San Pedro station, the South East Section of the Southern Railroad (formerly the Cusco-Santa Ana-Quillabamba Railway) departs. This route leads to the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu. PeruRail, the largest railway company in Peru, operates services to stations in Cusco.
By road, Cusco is linked to Puerto Maldonado, Arequipa, Abancay, Juliaca, and Puno. The road connecting Cusco to Abancay is the fastest route to Lima, taking more than 20 hours and passing through the departments of Apurímac, Ayacucho, Ica, and Lima.
As the administrative and economic center of the region, Cusco has many public and private health facilities. Public healthcare is managed by the Ministry of Health, which includes the Regional Hospital and Hospital Antonio Lorena. EsSalud also operates several institutions, such as Adolfo Guevara Velazco Hospital, Metropolitan Polyclinic, San Sebastián Polyclinic, Santiago Polyclinic, and La Recoleta Polyclinic.