Sigiriya, also known as Sinhagiri or Lion Rock (Sinhala: සීගිරිය, Tamil: சிகிரியா/சிங்ககிரி, pronounced SEE-gi-ri-yə), is an ancient rock fortress in the northern Matale District near Dambulla town in Sri Lanka's Central Province. It is a place of great historical and archaeological importance, featuring a large granite rock column about 180 meters (590 feet) high.

According to an old Sri Lankan story called the Cūḷavaṃsa, this area was once a forest. After storms and landslides changed the land into a hill, King Kashyapa (477–495 CE) chose it as his new capital. He built his palace on top of the rock and decorated its sides with colorful paintings. About halfway up the rock, he constructed a gateway shaped like a large lion. The name "Sinhagiri," meaning Lion Rock, comes from this structure.

After the king died, the capital and palace were abandoned. People used the site as a Buddhist monastery until the 14th century. Today, Sigiriya is a UNESCO-listed World Heritage Site. It is one of the best-preserved examples of how ancient cities were planned and built.

History

The area around Sigiriya was probably inhabited long ago, even before written history. Evidence from ancient writings on the western side of Sigiriya shows that rock shelters and caves nearby were used by Buddhist monks and ascetics as early as the 1st or 2nd century BCE. The oldest signs of people living at Sigiriya are found at the Aligala rock shelter to the east of the main rock, which dates back to around 3000 BCE during the Mesolithic Period.

Buddhist monastic communities were built on the western and northern slopes of the rocky hills around Sigiriya during the 3rd century BCE. Many rock shelters and caves were created during this time. These shelters were built under large rocks, with carved ledges around their entrances to collect rainwater. Inscriptions near these ledges record that the shelters were donated to Buddhist monks as homes. These inscriptions date from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE.

The Cūḷavaṃsa, an ancient text, describes how in 477 CE, Kashyapa I, the son of King Dhatusena and a non-royal woman, took over the throne with the help of Migara, the king’s nephew and military leader. He trapped his father inside a wall and killed him, then took the throne from his half-brother Moggallana, who fled to South India and promised to return for revenge.

Expecting Moggallana’s return, Kashyapa moved the capital from Anuradhapura to Sigiriya, which was safer. During his rule from 477 to 495 CE, Sigiriya was transformed into a city and fortress. Most of the structures on the rock, including walls, palaces, and gardens, were built during this time.

When Moggallana finally returned, he defeated Kashyapa in 495 CE. During the battle, Kashyapa’s army left him, and he killed himself by cutting his throat with a dagger. According to the Cūḷavaṃsa and stories passed down, the war elephant Kashyapa rode changed direction to gain an advantage, but the army thought he was fleeing. This caused the army to abandon him. Kashyapa refused to surrender and died by his own hand. After Kashyapa’s death, Moggallana moved the capital back to Anuradhapura and turned Sigiriya into a Buddhist monastery, which lasted until the 13th or 14th century. No records about Sigiriya appear again until the 16th and 17th centuries, when it was briefly used as a military outpost by the Kingdom of Kandy.

Some stories say King Dhatusena built Sigiriya, with Kashyapa completing the work to honor his father. Others describe Kashyapa as a king who enjoyed luxury, with Sigiriya serving as his personal palace. His death is also described differently in some accounts, including being poisoned by a concubine or cutting his own throat during the battle. Some believe Sigiriya was built by a Buddhist community and not used for military purposes. The site may have played a role in the historical competition between the Mahayana and Theravada Buddhist traditions in ancient Sri Lanka.

Archaeological remains and features

In 1831, Major Jonathan Forbes of the British Army's 78th (Highlanders) Regiment of Foot saw the "brushwood-covered summit of the rock of Sigiri" while returning on horseback from a trip to Pollonnuruwa. This discovery brought attention to Sigiriya, which later interested historians and archaeologists. Small-scale archaeological work at Sigiriya began in the 1890s. H.C.P. Bell was the first archaeologist to study Sigiriya in great detail. In 1982, the Cultural Triangle Project, started by the Government of Sri Lanka, focused on Sigiriya. This project marked the first time archaeological work covered the entire city. A sculpted lion's head once stood above the legs and paws near the entrance, but it fell apart many years ago.

Sigiriya is an ancient citadel built by King Kashyapa in the 5th century. The site includes the ruins of an upper palace on the flat top of the rock, a mid-level terrace with the Lion Gate and the mirror wall decorated with frescoes, and lower palaces built along the slopes below the rock. The palace's moats, walls, and gardens stretched for several hundred meters from the base of the rock. The site functioned as both a palace and a fortress. The upper palace on the rock's top has cisterns carved into the rock.

Sigiriya is considered one of the most important examples of urban planning from the first millennium. Its design is seen as very detailed and creative. The plan combined symmetrical and asymmetrical elements to blend man-made shapes with natural surroundings. On the rock's western side, a royal park was built using a symmetrical layout. This park includes water-retaining structures, such as advanced surface and underground water systems, some of which still work today. To the south, a man-made reservoir was built, which was widely used from the previous capital in Sri Lanka's dry zone. Five gates were placed at the entrances. The more detailed western gate was likely used only by royalty.

Frescoes

In 1907, John Still wrote, "The entire hill seems to have been a huge art gallery… possibly the largest painting in the world." The paintings would have covered most of the western side of the rock, an area 140 meters (460 feet) long and 40 meters (130 feet) high. Graffiti on the site mentions 500 women in these paintings, but most of them have been lost over time. Other frescoes, which look different from those on the rock face, can be found elsewhere, such as on the ceiling of a place called the "Cobra Hood Cave."

Although these frescoes are grouped with the Anuradhapura period, their painting style is considered unique. The lines and way the paint was applied differ from Anuradhapura paintings. The lines are painted to create the illusion of depth in the figures. Paint was applied with sweeping strokes, using more pressure on one side to make the colors appear deeper at the edges. Other paintings from the Anuradhapura period use similar techniques, but they do not have the loose, sketchy lines seen in the Sigiriya style, which have a clear outline. The true identity of the women in the paintings has not been confirmed. Some believe they were royal women, while others think they were women participating in religious activities. These paintings closely resemble those found in the Ajanta Caves in India.

On October 14, 1967, paint was spilled on the frescoes during an act of vandalism. Luciano Maranzi, an expert trained in Rome, helped restore the damage, which took until April 11, 1968. This was considered the most difficult project by the Chemical Preservation Division of the Department of Archaeology. Concerns remain about the original colors fading. A 2010 report noted that the 22 frescoes have been losing color since 1930.

Mirror wall

This wall was very shiny, allowing the king to see his reflection as he walked by. Built with brickwork and covered in smooth white plaster, the wall now has some writings from visitors. These writings include messages from as early as the 8th century, though most are from the 9th and 10th centuries. People of many backgrounds, including poets, officials, and everyday individuals, left messages on the wall. These writings are the only known examples of poetry from the Anuradhapura period.

One example of a poem reads:
"Like geese who have seen a lake, I listened to the message given by her."
Another line states:
"Like a bee who has seen full-blown lotuses, the confused heart of mine was comforted."
The poet uses the word "hasun" twice, once for "message" and once for "swans," creating a clever connection. The poet’s eagerness to hear from his love is compared to a bee’s interest in lotus flowers, which provide a place to rest and drink nectar.

Out of more than 1,500 poems, most were written to women shown in wall paintings. Men praised the women’s beauty, while others expressed jealousy. One woman wrote:
"A deer-eyed girl from the mountains makes me angry. She holds pearls and looks at me with a competitive gaze."

Writing on the wall is now banned to protect the old messages. The Archaeological Commissioner of Ceylon, Senarath Paranavithana, identified 685 verses from the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries. One poem, translated from ancient Sinhala, reads:
"I am Budal. I came with many people to see Sigiriya. Everyone else wrote poems, but I did not!"

Gardens

The gardens of Sigiriya are among the oldest landscaped gardens in the world. They are divided into three distinct but connected sections: water gardens, cave and boulder gardens, and terraced gardens.

Senake Bandaranayake describes three garden styles found at Sigiriya: the symmetrical or geometrically planned water gardens; the asymmetrical or natural-looking cave and boulder gardens; and the stepped or terraced gardens at the base of the central rock. He says the palace garden on top of the rock combines these three styles. He notes that the layout of Sigiriya blends symmetry and asymmetry, showing a deliberate mix of planned designs and natural shapes. The gardens use both geometric and natural elements, such as the Sigiriya rock itself, the terraced hill around the rock, and man-made features like boulder gardens, winding streams, and waterfalls. These gardens also use the view of nearby mountains and hills. According to Ellepola, water in the gardens was moved using systems that rely on gravity, creating a slow flow to where it was needed.

The water gardens are located in the central area of the western part of Sigiriya. Three main gardens are found here. The first garden is a plot surrounded by water, connected to the main area by four causeways with gateways at each end.

The second garden has two long, deep pools on either side of a path. Two shallow, winding streams lead to these pools. Circular limestone fountains are placed here, and underground water channels supply water to them. These fountains still work, especially during the rainy season. Two large islands are on either side of this garden, with summer palaces built on their flat surfaces. Two more islands are farther north and south, built in a similar way to the first garden’s islands.

The third garden is higher than the others. It has a large, octagonal pool with a raised platform on its northeast corner. A large wall from the citadel is on the eastern edge of this garden.

The water gardens are arranged symmetrically along an east-west line. A moat connects them on the west, and a large artificial lake is to the south of the Sigiriya rock. All the pools are linked through an underground water system fed by the lake and connected to the moats. A smaller water garden, with several small pools and streams, is located west of the first garden. This garden was likely built after the Kashyapan period, between the 10th and 13th centuries.

The boulder gardens include large rocks connected by winding paths. These gardens stretch from the northern to the southern slopes of the hills at the base of Sigiriya rock. Many rocks had buildings or pavilions on them, with cuttings used as supports for walls and beams. These rocks were once pushed down from the top to attack enemies.

The terraced gardens are built from the natural hill at the base of the Sigiriya rock. A series of terraces rises from the boulder garden’s paths to the staircases on the rock. These terraces were created by building brick walls and are arranged in a roughly circular pattern around the rock. A limestone staircase forms the path through the terraced gardens. This staircase leads to a covered path along the rock’s side, which connects to the uppermost terrace where the lion staircase is located.

In popular culture

• Some scenes from the music video for the 1982 song "Save a Prayer" by Duran Duran were shot at the top of Sigiriya.
• Sigiriya appeared in the 11th episode of The Amazing Race 6 in 2005.
• Arthur C. Clarke used Sigiriya as the inspiration for the fictional place called "Yakkagala" in his novel The Fountains of Paradise. He said that the real Sigiriya was "so amazing that he didn't need to change it at all."