Hegra, also known as Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ, is an archaeological site located in the area of Al-'Ula within the Medina Province in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia. The site is named in several languages, including Ancient Greek (Ἕγρα), Latin (Hegrenorum), and Arabic (الْحِجْر, romanized as al-Ḥijr).

Most of the remains at the site date back to the time of the Nabataean Kingdom, when the city was first built. At that time, Hegra was the southernmost and second-largest city in the kingdom, after its capital, Petra in modern-day Jordan. Evidence of earlier Lihyanite and later Roman influences can also be found at the site. The area includes more than 110 well-preserved tombs carved into sandstone rock formations.

The site is located in a dry, arid environment. The lack of rain, the fact that no one has lived there since it was abandoned, and local beliefs about the area have helped preserve the site. These conditions have allowed researchers to learn a great deal about the Nabataean way of life. Hegra was likely the southernmost part of the Nabataean kingdom. Its ancient wells and farming methods show how the Nabataeans adapted to the harsh environment. The site is the second-largest Nabataean settlement, similar to Petra in Jordan. Its location at a trade route and the variety of artistic styles on its tombs make it unique compared to other sites. Because of its many preserved structures, Hegra is sometimes called "The Capital of Monuments" among Saudi Arabia's thousands of archaeological sites.

The Quran mentions that the Thamudi people lived in the area during the time of the prophet Salih. This period is described as being between the time of the prophet Noah and Hud, and the time of Abraham and Moses. However, the Quran does not provide a clear timeline because its chapters discuss different topics in a non-chronological order. According to the Quran, the Thamudis were punished by God for worshiping idols. They were struck by an earthquake and lightning, which led to the site being seen as a cursed place. The Saudi government is working to change this image as it promotes tourism in the area.

In 2008, UNESCO declared Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ a World Heritage Site, making it Saudi Arabia's first such site. It was recognized for its well-preserved remains from ancient times, especially the 131 rock-cut tombs of the Nabataean Kingdom, which are decorated with elaborate designs.

Name

The site has many names because of its long history and the many cultures that lived there. Ancient writers like Strabo called the Nabataean site Hegra, which comes from the Ancient Greek word Ἔγρα. The origin of the name Hegra is unclear. In Semitic languages, the root hjr can mean "surround" or "encompass" in Aramaic, and "a protected place" or "a high wall" in Arabic.

The name Mada'in Salih, meaning "the cities of Salih," began to be used during the time of the Ottoman Empire. It refers to Salih, a prophet in the Quran who could not persuade the Thamudeans to stop practicing polytheism.

For a long time, Hegra was not as important as Dedan. However, foreigners often called the area Hegra. For example, a famous statue of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great, made in Egypt and placed in Susa, refers to the Arabs as "hgr."

Location and climate

The archaeological site of Hegra is located 20 kilometers (12 miles) north of the town of Al-'Ula, 400 kilometers (250 miles) northwest of Medina, and 500 kilometers (310 miles) southeast of Petra, Jordan. Istakhri wrote in his book Routes of the Realms:

The site lies on an inland plain at the base of Jabal al-Uwayrid, a basalt rock area that is part of the Hijaz Mountains in the eastern Hijaz. Under the western and northwestern parts of the site, water can be found 20 meters (66 feet) below the ground. The landscape has isolated rock formations made of ancient sandstone, shaped by strong erosion during the late Miocene period. These sandstones range in color from reddish-brown Cambrian layers to lighter Ordovician layers. Their fine grain made them suitable for carving, but their resistance to erosion varies, with some layers heavily affected by wind and salt. The sandstone formations in the desert can differ greatly in size and height.

The climate is very dry, with less than 50 millimeters of rain each year. However, the site is in a good water-related position within a natural drainage gully that collects water runoff from nearby hills. This runoff filled up shallow groundwater, which in ancient times was less than 10 meters below the surface. Using these conditions, the Nabataeans created an oasis mainly supported by deep wells instead of surface channels. This allowed for irrigation, agriculture, and provided water for the local people and travelers in the area.

History

Recent archaeological discoveries have uncovered many rock carvings and pictures not only on Mount Athleb, but also across central Arabia. These writings and images date from the sixth century BC to the fourth century AD. Scholars in the nineteenth century named them "Thamudic," a term used to describe these many inscriptions before they were fully studied.

Archaeological findings on the sandstone and inscriptions, believed to be in Lihyanite script, on Athleb Mountain near Hegra (Madaʾin Salih) have been dated to the 3rd–2nd century BC. This suggests that humans lived in the area long ago, where fresh water and fertile soil were available. The Lihyans, who settled there, became a center for trade, with goods from the east, north, and south brought to the region.

The area saw large-scale settlement in the 1st century AD, when it came under the control of Nabataean king Aretas IV Philopatris (Al-Harith IV), who ruled from 9 BC to 40 AD. He made Hegra (Madaʾin Salih) the second capital of his kingdom, after Petra in the north. The city grew rapidly, becoming a major urban center. The sandstone and rock formations of Hegra provided ideal materials for carving large buildings, with Nabataean writing carved into their walls.

The Nabataeans also created farming systems in desert areas, digging wells and rainwater storage pits in the rock. They carved places of worship into the sandstone. Similar structures were found in other Nabataean settlements, from southern Syria to the Negev and the Hejaz. Petra is the most famous and largest of these.

As a key location for trade, the Nabataean kingdom became wealthy, controlling the trade of incense, myrrh, and spices. Hegra, known as Egra Kome to the Nabataeans, was a major stop on the overland trade route connecting the Red Sea to the rest of the region.

In 106 AD, the Nabataean kingdom was taken over by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan. Hegra became part of the Roman province of Arabia. However, unlike other Nabataean sites such as Petra and Bostra, there are no historical records about Hegra during the Roman period. All information comes from archaeological findings, including over 30 inscriptions in Nabataean, Greek, and Latin. These inscriptions suggest that Hegra may have been the southernmost point of Roman control in Arabia.

During the Roman era, Hegra remained an important city. A Latin inscription from 175–177 AD refers to it as "civitas Hegrenorum," showing its status as a Roman city. The city saw an increase in trade, imports from the Eastern Mediterranean, and local food production. These changes were partly linked to Roman soldiers stationed there. The main temple was improved, and the southeastern gate was rebuilt in the late second or early third century.

The main Roman military unit at Hegra was the Legio III Cyrenaica, which helped conquer Nabataea. Other Roman legions also had soldiers stationed there. The Romans built a fortress, which served as their base. By the late second or early third century, the Roman army left Hegra, and the civilian part of the fortress was abandoned by the fourth century. However, the population of Hegra continued to live there until at least the sixth century.

In the early sixth century, Hegra may have been under Roman control again. Emperor Justinian I, trying to stop the Sasanian Empire, created client states in Arabia. He reportedly controlled the "Palm Grove" (possibly Hegra or Tayma) through a local leader. A decorated bowl with a lion, typical of the late Roman Byzantine period, was found at Hegra, showing trade with the Byzantine Empire.

By the end of the Roman era, Hegra lost its role as a trade center. This was because trade routes shifted from overland paths through Arabia to sea routes via the Red Sea. Experts believe the site stopped being a city by the start of late antiquity, mainly due to desert conditions.

Little is known about Hegra during the early Islamic period. Only a few pottery pieces and Arabic inscriptions have been found.

In the Islamic period, Hegra was a stop along the Hajj pilgrimage route, offering water and supplies to travelers. A 10th-century Arab traveler, Al-Maqdisi, described Hegra as a small oasis with activity centered around its wells. Another traveler, Ibn Battuta, in the 14th century, noted the red stone tombs of Hegra, known as "al-Hijr," but did not mention people living there.

The Ottoman Empire took control of western Arabia from the Mamluks in 1517. Early Ottoman records of the Hajj route did not mention Hegra until 1672, when a Turkish traveler, Evliya Celebi, described a place called "Abyar Salih" with the remains of seven cities. Another traveler, Murtada ibn 'Alawan, later called it "al-Mada'in." Between 1744 and 1757, the Ottoman governor of Damascus, As'ad Pasha al-Azm, ordered the construction of a fortress at al-Hijr. A cistern with a large well was built, and the site became a one-day stop for Hajj pilgrims. It was part of a series of forts built to protect the pilgrimage route to Mecca.

Research by Al-Ansari found evidence of an Ottoman fortress near the settlement dating to 1600 AD, discovered in 1984.

In 1812, Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt rediscovered Petra for the Western world. After this, English traveler Charles Montagu Doughty learned of a similar site near Hegra (Madaʾin Salih), a fortified Ottoman town on the Hajj road. Doughty joined a Hajj caravan and reached the ruins in 1876, writing about his visit in his book Travels in Arabia Deserta. He described the Ottoman fortress where he stayed for two months and noted that Bedouin tribes lived nearby.

In the 19th century, settlers from the nearby village of Tayma occasionally used the wells and farmland at al-Hijr. This continued until the early 20th century, when the Hejaz Railway was built from 1901 to 1908. Ordered by Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II, the railway connected Damascus and Jerusalem in the north-west to Medina and Mecca, helping pilgrims travel to Mecca and strengthening Ottoman control in the region.

In the Qur'an

According to the Quran, the area known as al-Hijr was once home to the Thamud tribe. They built homes from the plains and carved houses from the mountains. Over time, the tribe began to worship idols, and oppression became common. Prophet Salih, after whom the site of Mada'in Salih is often named, called on the Thamud people to stop their wrongdoing and return to God. The Thamudis ignored his warning and instead demanded that Salih bring a pregnant female camel from a mountain. A pregnant camel was sent as proof of Salih’s divine mission.

Only a few people listened to Salih’s message. The non-believers killed the sacred camel instead of caring for it. The camel’s calf ran back to the mountain from which it had come. The Thamudis were given three days to change their ways before punishment began, as they refused to believe and ignored the warning. Salih and his followers who believed in one God left the city, but the others were punished by God. During this punishment, their souls left their lifeless bodies as an earthquake and lightning struck the land.

Robert G. Hoyland proposed that the name "Thamud" was later used by other groups who lived in the region of Mada'in Salih after the original Thamud people disappeared. This idea is supported by accounts from Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab and the analysis of ibn Kathir. These sources mention that the region was called "Thamud al-Hijr," while the area of Mada'in Salih was referred to as "Arḍ Thamūd" (Land of Thamud) and "Bayt Thamūd" (House of Thamud). The term "Thamud" was applied to the region itself, not to the groups living in Mada'in Salih, such as the Lihyanites and Nabataeans. Classical sources agree that the only remaining Thamudites were the Banu Thaqif, who lived in the city of Taif, located south of Mecca.

Tombs

Funerary monuments are the most noticeable and well-preserved remains found at Hegra. Like at Petra, rock-cut tombs are the most common structures at the site, but at Hegra, these tombs are often better preserved. The funerary remains include three main types: large rock-cut tombs, simple trench graves, and tumuli, which show differences in social status and the long-term use of the area.

The large tombs were carved into sandstone cliffs around the city and were built to face the city, making them visible and honoring important families. These tombs form groups of tombs that surround the settlement. In contrast, trench graves, which are carved directly into the rock, are found on the tops of rocky hills and were used for people who were not part of the elite; thousands of these graves have been recorded. Tumuli, which are made of stone mounds, are mostly located on flat areas west of the city. When one tumulus was excavated, it revealed a tower-tomb structure that may have been built before the Nabataean period but was used again between the first century BC and early third century AD.

Eighty-six large tombs have carved front faces that belong to a unique Nabataean architectural style. Different groups of styles have been identified, including early "proto-Hegra" types and a later "Hegra type," which can be recognized by the presence of an attic. The size of these tombs varies greatly, ranging from small facades to large examples over twenty meters high, with the largest called al-Farid.

Unlike most tombs at Petra, many tombs at Hegra have Nabataean inscriptions carved above their entrances. These inscriptions acted as legal records, showing ownership, burial rights, rules, and dates based on the time when Nabataean kings ruled. The people who owned these tombs were part of the city's elite and included men, women, officials, and professionals. Inside, the tombs had rooms where families were buried together, with multiple graves carved into walls or floors and added over time, showing that the tombs were used by many generations.

Gallery

• A train carriage from the Hejaz Railway in 1908
• A drawing of Madain Saleh station from 1913
• A drawing of Al-Farid Palace created by Wahbi Al-Hariri in 1979
• Sandstone formations found at Madain Saleh
• Ancient inscriptions
• Tombs located in Area C
• A train carriage located outside Madain Saleh station
• One of the regions within Jabal Athlab