The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state in India. These caves were created between the second century BCE and about 480 CE. They are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and are widely considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art. The caves include paintings and sculptures that are among the finest examples of ancient Indian art. The paintings are especially noted for showing emotions through gestures, body positions, and shapes.

The caves were built in two main stages. The first stage began around the second century BCE. The second stage was created between 400 and 650 CE, according to older records, or during a shorter time between 460 and 480 CE, according to more recent research.

The Ajanta Caves contain ancient monasteries (called viharas) and worship halls (called chaityas) carved into a rock wall that is 75 meters (246 feet) tall. The caves also have paintings that show stories about the past lives and rebirths of the Buddha, as well as images of Buddhist gods. Texts suggest that these caves were used as places where monks stayed during the rainy season and as rest stops for travelers and pilgrims in ancient India. While many colorful paintings once existed in India, the paintings in Caves 1, 2, 16, and 17 at Ajanta are the largest collection of surviving ancient Indian wall paintings.

The Ajanta Caves are mentioned in the writings of Chinese Buddhist travelers from the medieval period. For many years, the caves were hidden under jungle until they were discovered in 1819 by a British officer named Captain John Smith during a tiger-hunting trip. The caves are located on the northern side of a U-shaped gorge along the River Waghur in the Deccan Plateau. Waterfalls in the gorge can be heard from outside the caves when the river is high.

Transport

Ajanta is an important tourist attraction in Maharashtra, India. It is approximately 59 kilometers (37 miles) from the city of Jalgaon, Maharashtra, 104 kilometers (65 miles) from Aurangabad, and 350 kilometers (220 miles) east-northeast of Mumbai. Nearby is the Ellora Caves, another UNESCO World Heritage Site located about 100 kilometers (62 miles) away. These caves include Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist structures, with some dating to a time similar to Ajanta. The artistic style of Ajanta is also found in other nearby caves, such as the Elephanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Shivleni Caves, and the cave temples of Karnataka. The closest airports are Jalgaon and Sambhaji Nagar, with Mumbai being the next closest. The nearest railway stations are Jalgaon and Bhusawal.

History

The Ajanta Caves were built in two main periods. The first was from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. The second period happened many years later.

There are 36 caves that can be clearly identified. Some were discovered after the original numbering of the caves from 1 to 29. These later caves were labeled with letters, such as 15A, which is between caves 15 and 16. The numbering system is for convenience and does not show the order in which the caves were built.

The earliest caves are numbered 9, 10, 12, 13, and 15A. The paintings in these caves show stories from the Jatakas. Later caves show the influence of the Gupta period. Scholars disagree about when the early caves were built. Some, like Walter Spink, believe they were made between 100 BCE and 100 CE, under the Satavahana dynasty (230 BCE–220 CE). Others think they were built during the Maurya Empire (300 BCE–100 BCE). Caves 9 and 10 are stupa-shaped worship halls called chaitya-grihas. Caves 12, 13, and 15A are viharas, which are monastic halls. The first Satavahana-period caves did not include statues, focusing instead on the stupa.

Spink suggests that after the Satavahana-period caves were built, no new work was done for many years until the mid-5th century. However, the early caves were still used during this time. Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited around 400 CE, recorded that Buddhist travelers visited the site.

The second phase of construction began in the 5th century. Earlier, it was thought that the later caves were built from the 4th to the 7th centuries. However, recent studies by Walter M. Spink argue that most of the work happened between 460 and 480 CE, during the reign of Hindu Emperor Harishena of the Vākāṭaka dynasty. Some scholars disagree, but many books on Indian art now support this view.

The second phase is linked to Mahāyāna Buddhism, a major form of the religion. Caves from this period include numbers 1–8, 11, 14–29, and some may be extensions of earlier caves. Caves 19, 26, and 29 are chaitya-grihas, while the rest are viharas. The most detailed and elaborate caves were built during this time, with some early caves being repainted.

Spink claims that the dates for this period can be determined very precisely. Although debates continue, his ideas are widely accepted. The Archaeological Survey of India website still lists the traditional dates: "The second phase of paintings started around the 5th–6th centuries and continued for two centuries."

Spink believes that construction at Ajanta stopped around 480 CE, a few years after Harishena’s death. However, evidence like worn pivot holes in caves near 480 CE suggests the site was still used for a time. The second phase of construction and decoration at Ajanta happened during India’s golden age. However, the Gupta Empire was weakening due to political problems and attacks by the Hūṇas. The Vākāṭaka dynasty was one of the strongest powers in India at the time. Some Hūṇas, like the Alchon Huns of Toramana, ruled nearby areas and may have helped spread cultural ideas between Gandhara and the Western Deccan, seen in some Ajanta cave designs.

According to Richard Cohen, descriptions by 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuanzang and medieval graffiti suggest the caves were known and used later, but without a stable Buddhist community. The 17th-century text Ain-i-Akbari mentions 24 rock-cut cave temples with remarkable idols.

In 1819, British officer John Smith discovered Cave No. 10 with the help of a local shepherd boy. He asked villagers to clear the jungle around the site. He saw painted ceilings and monastic halls, which helped him recognize the caves’ Buddhist origins. He scratched his name and the date on a painting of a bodhisattva. The inscription is now above eye level for adults. A paper on the caves by William Erskine was presented to the Bombay Literary Society in 1822.

After rediscovery, the caves became famous for their unique paintings, architecture, and setting. Many projects were made to copy the paintings. In 1848, the Royal Asiatic Society formed the "Bombay Cave Temple Commission" to study and preserve important rock-cut sites. This became the basis for the Archaeological Survey of India in 1861.

During the colonial era, Ajanta was in the princely state of Hyderabad, not British India. In the 1920s, Mir Osman Ali Khan, the last Nizam of Hyderabad, restored the artwork, built a museum, and improved access for tourists. These efforts led to early mismanagement and damage. After India gained independence, the Maharashtra government improved visitor facilities, transport, and site management. The modern Visitor Center includes parking, restrooms, and buses operated by the Archaeological Survey of India.

The Nizam’s Director of Archaeology hired Italian experts, Lorenzo Cecconi and Count Orsini, to restore the paintings. Cecconi and Orsini’s work was praised for its quality. However, later neglect caused the paintings to degrade again.

Since 1983, Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Along with the Ellora Caves, they are the most popular tourist attractions in Maharashtra. Crowds during holidays threaten the caves, especially the paintings. In 2012, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation planned to build replicas of caves 1, 2, 16, and 17 at the visitor center to reduce crowding and help visitors see the paintings more clearly.

Sites and monasteries

The caves were carved from basalt and granite rock found in a cliff, part of the Deccan Traps created by many volcanic eruptions at the end of the Cretaceous period. The rock layers are horizontal and vary in quality. This unevenness in the rock forced artists to change their carving methods and plans in some areas. Over time, the uneven rock caused cracks and collapses, such as the lost portico in Cave 1. Excavation started by cutting a narrow tunnel at the top of the cliff, which was then expanded downward and outward. Some caves, like the partially built vihara caves 21 through 24 and the abandoned Cave 28, remain incomplete.

Sculptors likely worked on both digging the rock and carving detailed pillars, roofs, and idols. Inside the caves, sculpture and painting tasks were done at the same time. A grand gateway was carved at the top of the horseshoe-shaped gorge between Caves 15 and 16, near the river. It has elephants on both sides and a nāga, or protective snake deity. Similar techniques and artistic skills are seen in other Indian cave temples, such as those from Hinduism and Jainism, including the Ellora Caves, Ghatotkacha Caves, Elephanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Badami Caves, Aurangabad Caves, and Shivleni Caves.

Caves from the first period were funded by many different donors to gain merit, as shown by inscriptions recording donations for parts of a single cave. Later caves were built as complete units by one patron, often from local rulers or their court, for merit in Buddhist beliefs, as seen in inscriptions like those in Cave 17. After Harisena’s death, smaller donors added small shrines between caves or statues to existing caves. Over 200 of these additions were made in sculpture, and up to 300 in Cave 10 alone.

Most caves are vihara halls with square plans. Each hall has smaller square dormitory cells attached to the walls. Most caves were carved in the second period, with a shrine or sanctuary added at the back, centered on a large Buddha statue and surrounded by detailed carvings and deities. This change reflects the shift from Hinayana to Mahāyāna Buddhism. These caves are often called monasteries.

The central space inside viharas is formed by square columns, creating an open square area. Outside this, long rectangular aisles run along the sides, forming a cloister-like space. Along the walls and rear are small cells with narrow doorways and small niches on their back walls. These originally had wooden doors. The center of the rear wall has a larger shrine room with a large Buddha statue.

Earlier viharas are simpler and lack shrines. Spink notes that the addition of shrines began in the middle of the second period, with many caves modified during or after their initial construction.

Cave 1 is one of the largest viharas and is typical of the later group. Cave 16 lacks a vestibule to the shrine, leading directly to the main hall. Cave 6 has two viharas stacked on top of each other, connected by stairs, with sanctuaries on both levels.

• Cave 12: an early vihara (1st century BCE) without an internal shrine
• Cave 1: a monastery known for its paintings
• Cave 6: a two-story monastery with paintings of the "Miracle of Sravasti" and "Temptation of Mara"
• Cave 16: a monastery with two side aisles

Another type of main hall is the narrower rectangular chaitya-griha, or "house of stupa." This hall is divided into a central nave and two narrower side aisles, separated by pillars, with a stupa at the back. The stupa is surrounded by pillars and space for walking around it. Some caves have carved entrances and large windows for light. A colonnaded porch or verandah is often present, with a space inside the doors running the width of the cave. The oldest worship halls at Ajanta were built between the 2nd and 1st century BCE, and the newest in the late 5th century CE. Their architecture resembles that of Christian churches but lacks a crossing or chapel. The Ajanta Caves follow the cathedral-style architecture seen in older Indian rock-cut caves, such as the Lomas Rishi Cave near Gaya, dated to the 3rd century BCE. These chaitya-griha are called worship or prayer halls.

The four completed chaitya halls are Caves 9 and 10 (early period) and Caves 19 and 26 (later period). They all have high ceilings and a central nave leading to the stupa, which allows walking behind it, as walking around stupas is a common Buddhist practice (pradakshina). The later halls have high ribbed roofs carved into the rock, reflecting timber forms, while the earlier ones used actual timber ribs now lost. Caves 19 and 26 have a unique feature where the stupa is fronted by a large relief of the Buddha—standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26. Cave 29 is a late, incomplete chaitya hall.

Columns in the first period are plain and simple, with octagonal shapes. Later, columns became more varied, with changing profiles and elaborate carved capitals. Many columns are decorated with floral patterns and Mahayana deities, as seen in Cave 1.

• Cave 10: a worship hall with art related to Jataka tales (1st century BCE)
• Cave 9: a worship hall with early paintings and animal friezes (1st century CE)
• Cave 19: known for its figures of the Buddha, Kubera, and other art (5th century CE)
• Cave 19: another view (5th century CE)

Paintings

Most of the Ajanta caves and nearly all the mural paintings were created about 600 years apart, during two different construction periods. The paintings in the Ajanta caves mostly tell stories from the Jataka tales. These are Buddhist stories that describe the Buddha’s past lives. These stories include ancient morals and cultural traditions also found in Hindu and Jain texts. The Jataka tales show the Buddha’s life and sacrifices through many past lives, where he is shown as an animal or a human.

Murals from both the earlier and later groups of caves have survived. Some early mural fragments from Caves 10 and 11 are rare examples of ancient Indian painting from this time. These fragments show that by the Sātavāhana period, Indian painters had developed a naturalistic style, creating scenes with large groups of people similar to carvings on Sāñcī toraņa crossbars. Some connections to Gandhara art styles are also visible, suggesting shared artistic techniques.

Four later caves have large, well-preserved murals that, according to James Harle, "represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist" and "show the great achievements of Gupta and all Indian art." These murals fall into two art styles, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17. Caves 1 and 2 have later paintings, but revised timelines suggest they were also made in the 5th century, possibly by artists from different regions. The Ajanta frescoes are classic paintings created by skilled artists. They are rich, detailed, and celebrate physical beauty, which surprised early Western observers who expected religious themes only.

The paintings are "dry fresco," meaning they were painted on dry plaster, not wet. All the paintings were made by artists supported by knowledgeable patrons from urban areas. Literary sources show that painting was widely practiced during the Gupta period. Unlike many Indian murals, Ajanta paintings do not use horizontal bands. Instead, scenes spread out from a central figure or group. Ceilings also have detailed decorative patterns inspired by sculpture.

In Cave 1, paintings commissioned by Harisena focus on Jataka tales where the Buddha is shown as a king, not an animal. These scenes show the Buddha preparing to leave royal life.

Later caves were painted as excavation work continued elsewhere, as seen in Caves 2 and 16. According to Spink’s timeline, work stopped in 478 after a short busy period, explaining the lack of paintings in areas like Cave 4 and the shrine in Cave 17, which was plastered but never painted.

• Cave 2: Many areas have lost paint. It was never completed and shows the Vidhura Jataka.
• Cave 17 verandah doorway: Eight Buddhas above eight couples.
• Section of the mural in Cave 17, the 'coming of Sinhala': Prince Vijaya is shown with elephants and riders.
• Hamsa jâtaka, Cave 17: The Buddha as the golden goose in a past life.
• Cave 13.

Spink's chronology and cave history

Walter Spink has created a detailed timeline for the second period of work at the Ajanta Caves, which he places entirely in the 5th century. This is based on evidence such as inscriptions, the artistic style of the caves, the dating of nearby temple sites, comparisons of royal dynasties, and the unfinished parts of the caves. Spink believes the earlier group of caves, which other scholars dated roughly to between 100 BCE and 100 CE, were completely abandoned for over three centuries. This changed during the rule of Harishena, a Hindu emperor of the Vakataka Dynasty, who reigned from 460 to 477. Harishena expanded the Vakataka Empire to include parts of India’s east coast, while the Gupta Empire ruled northern India and the Pallava Dynasty controlled much of the south.

Spink says Harishena encouraged his associates, including his prime minister Varahadeva and Upendragupta, a local ruler whose territory included Ajanta, to build new caves. These caves were individually commissioned, and some had inscriptions showing donations. Work on many caves began around 462 but was mostly paused in 468 due to threats from the neighboring Asmaka kings. After that, only Caves 1 (built by Harishena) and 17–20 (built by Upendragupta) continued to be worked on. In 472, work stopped completely for a time Spink calls "the Hiatus," which lasted until about 475. By then, the Asmakas had taken over as local rulers.

Work resumed briefly but was disrupted again after Harishena’s death in 477. Major excavation stopped except for Cave 26, which the Asmakas were building themselves. The Asmakas later rebelled against Harishena’s son, leading to the fall of the Vakataka Dynasty. Between 478 and 480, large-scale excavation by important patrons ended, and instead, smaller additions like statues and shrines were added by less powerful individuals, including monks. Spink notes that after 480, no new images were created at the site. However, a Rashtrakuta inscription outside Cave 26, dated to the late 7th or early 8th century, suggests the caves were not completely abandoned until that time.

Spink does not use the word "circa" for his dates but advises allowing a possible one- or two-year margin of error. The Ajanta Caves were built during a time when both the Buddha and Hindu gods were honored in Indian culture. Spink and other scholars believe the Vakataka rulers who funded the caves likely worshipped both Hindu and Buddhist deities. This is supported by inscriptions showing these rulers, who are otherwise known as Hindu devotees, made Buddhist dedications to the caves.

A terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini, also called Durga, was found in a recently excavated burnt-brick vihara monastery near the caves. This suggests the goddess may have been worshipped by the artisans who built the caves. Yuko Yokoschi and Walter Spink note that 5th-century artifacts near the site indicate the Ajanta Caves required a large number of builders.

Cave 1

Cave 1 is located at the eastern end of a horseshoe-shaped scarp and is the first cave visitors see. When it was first built, it was in a less noticeable position, at the end of a row of caves. According to Spink, this cave was among the last to be excavated, after the best locations were already used. It was never fully used for worship, as shown by the lack of black stains from oil lamps on the base of the central shrine and the absence of damage to the paintings that would have occurred if the hooks for hanging garlands had been used for a long time. Spink notes that the Vākāṭaka Emperor Harishena supported the cave’s construction, which is reflected in the focus on royal imagery in the cave, including Jataka tales that describe the Buddha’s past lives as a king.

The cliff here is steeper than at other caves, so to create a tall and grand entrance, workers had to dig deeply into the slope, forming a large courtyard in front of the facade. Originally, there was a portico with columns in front of the facade, which was partially intact in the 1880s but later collapsed completely. The remaining parts, which had fine carvings, were discarded and lost in the river.

Cave 1 (35.7 m × 27.6 m) has one of the most detailed carved facades, with relief sculptures on the entablature and ridges, and most surfaces decorated with carvings. Scenes from the Buddha’s life and decorative motifs are carved into the walls. A two-pillared portico, visible in 19th-century photographs, no longer exists. The cave has a forecourt with cells on either side, each with a high platform. The porch has simple cells at both ends. The lack of pillared vestibules at the ends suggests the porch was not built during the latest phase of Ajanta, when such features became common. Much of the porch was once covered with murals, many of which remain, especially on the ceiling. There are three doorways: a central one and two side ones. Two square windows were carved between the doorways to allow more light into the cave.

Each wall of the hall inside is nearly 40 feet (12 m) long and 20 feet (6.1 m) high. Twelve pillars form a square colonnade inside, supporting the ceiling and creating wide aisles along the walls. A shrine is carved into the rear wall to house a seated image of the Buddha, his hands in the Dhammacakkappavattana mudra. There are four cells on each of the left, rear, and right walls, but due to rock faults, there are no cells at the ends of the rear aisle.

The paintings in Cave 1 cover the walls and ceilings. They are mostly preserved, though the full design was never completed. The scenes include didactic, devotional, and ornamental images, such as stories from the Jataka tales of the Buddha’s past lives as a bodhisattva, the life of the Gautama Buddha, and scenes of his veneration. The two most famous painted images at Ajanta are the large figures of the protective bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani, located on either side of the entrance to the Buddha shrine in the rear aisle. Other important frescoes in Cave 1 include the Sibi, Sankhapala, Mahajanaka, Mahaummagga, and Champeyya Jataka tales. The cave’s paintings also show the Temptation of Mara, the miracle of Sravasti where the Buddha appears in many forms at once, the story of Nanda, and the story of Siddhartha and Yasodhara.

• One of four frescoes for the Mahajanaka Jataka tale: the king announces his abdication to become an ascetic.
• Sibi Jataka: the king undergoes the traditional rituals for renunciants. He receives a ceremonial bath.
• The Bodhisattva of compassion Padmapani with a lotus.
• The Vajrapani.
• Kinnara with a kachchapa veena, part of the Bodhisattva Padmapani painting in Cave 1.
• Ajanta Cave 1 Group of foreigners on the ceiling.

Cave 2

Cave 2, located next to Cave 1, is famous for the paintings found on its walls, ceilings, and pillars. It looks similar to Cave 1 but is in better condition. This cave is known for its focus on women, detailed carvings, and painted artwork. However, the artwork is not complete and has some inconsistencies. One of the 5th-century paintings in this cave shows children in a school. The children in the front rows are paying attention to the teacher, while those in the back row appear distracted.

Cave 2 measures 35.7 meters by 21.6 meters. It was started in the 460s but mainly carved between 475 and 477 CE. It is believed to have been sponsored and influenced by a woman closely related to Emperor Harisena. The cave has a porch that is different from Cave 1, including unique carvings on the front. The cave is supported by strong pillars decorated with designs. The front porch includes cells on both ends, each supported by pillared vestibules.

Inside, the hall has four colonnades that support the ceiling and surround a square in the center. Each colonnade is parallel to the hall’s walls, creating an aisle between them. The colonnades have rock beams above and below. The capitals (top parts of the pillars) are carved and painted with designs, including patterns, people, animals, plants, and figures of divine beings. One major carving shows Goddess Hariti, a Buddhist deity who was once a demoness associated with disease and harm to children but was later converted by the Buddha into a protector of fertility and children.

The paintings on the ceilings and walls of Cave 2 have been widely shared. They depict stories such as the Hamsa, Vidhurapandita, Ruru, Kshanti Jataka, and the Purna Avadhana. Other paintings show scenes like the Miracle of Sravasti, Ashtabhaya Avalokitesvara, and the dream of Maya. Unlike the stories in Cave 1, which focus on kings, the stories in Cave 2 highlight many powerful and noble women in important roles, leading some to believe the cave’s patron was a woman. The back wall of the porch has a central doorway that leads into the hall. On either side of the door are square windows to let in light.

One painting above the right door shows the Buddha in Tushita heaven. Another painting depicts a scene from the Vidurapandita Jataka, which tells the story of the Buddha’s birth. The artworks in Cave 2 often include depictions of women, such as the two female figures shown in some paintings. One famous painting is the Miracle of Sravasti.

Cave 3

Cave 3 is just the beginning of an excavation. According to Spink, it was started at the very end of the final period of work and was quickly abandoned.

This is an unfinished monastery, and only the early stages of digging the pillared veranda have been completed. The cave was one of the last projects to begin at the site. Its date is estimated to be around 477 CE, shortly before the sudden death of Emperor Harisena. Work on the cave stopped after the rough entrance of the hall was dug out.

Cave 4

Cave 4, a Vihara, was supported by Mathura, likely not a noble or court official, but a wealthy devotee. This is the largest vihara in the first group of caves, showing that the sponsor had great wealth and influence without holding a government position. The cave is located at a higher level than others, possibly because the artists noticed the rock was not strong enough at lower levels and chose a better location for a large vihara. Another possibility is that planners wanted to carve a large cistern near the left side of the cave to accommodate more residents, matching the design on the right side, as suggested by the height of the forward cells on the left.

The Archaeological Survey of India dates the cave to the 6th century CE. Spink, however, dates the cave’s construction to about 463 CE, a century earlier, based on the style of construction and other writings. Cave 4 shows signs of a sudden collapse in the central hall’s ceiling, likely in the 6th century, caused by the cave’s size and weaknesses in the rock. Later, artists tried to fix this issue by digging deeper into the basalt lava to raise the ceiling’s height.

The cave has a square shape and includes a large statue of the Buddha in a preaching pose, surrounded by bodhisattvas and celestial nymphs above. It consists of a verandah, a hypostylar hall, a sanctum with an antechamber, and a series of unfinished cells. This monastery is the largest among the Ajanta caves, covering nearly 970 square meters (35 meters by 28 meters). The door frame is intricately carved, with a Bodhisattva on the right side representing the reliever of the Eight Great Perils. The rear wall of the verandah features a panel depicting the litany of Avalokiteśvara. The ceiling collapse likely disrupted the cave’s original plan, leaving it incomplete. Only the Buddha’s statue and major sculptures were completed, while other elements inside the cave were never painted, as the sponsor focused on what was most important.

Cave 5

Cave 5, a site not fully completed, was originally planned as a monastery measuring 10.32 meters by 16.8 meters. This cave has no sculptures or architectural features except for the door frame. The frame includes detailed carvings of female figures and mythical makara creatures, which appear in ancient and medieval Indian art. Construction of the cave probably began around 465 CE but was stopped due to weaknesses in the rock. Work resumed in 475 CE when the Asmakas people restarted projects at the Ajanta caves. However, the effort was halted again when artists and supporters redirected their focus to expanding Cave 6, which is located next to Cave 5.

Cave 6

Cave 6 is a two-level monastery measuring 16.85 meters by 18.07 meters. It includes a sanctum and a hall on both levels. The lower level has columns and attached cells, while the upper hall also has smaller rooms. Both levels have a sanctum with a statue of the Buddha in a teaching posture. Elsewhere, the Buddha is shown in different hand gestures called mudras. The lower level walls show scenes from the Miracle of Sravasti and the Temptation of Mara. Only the lower floor was completed. The upper floor remains unfinished and contains private votive sculptures and a shrine with a Buddha statue.

The lower level of Cave 6 was likely the first part built during the second stage of construction. This stage reflected the Mahayana religious theme and the Vakataka artistic revival period, which began about four centuries after earlier Hinayana-style construction. The upper level was not planned at first and was added later, possibly when builders stopped working on nearby Cave 5 due to rock instability. Both levels show signs of rough construction and errors. Work on the cave likely occurred between 460 and 470 CE, and it is the first cave to include Bodhisattvas. The upper level construction probably started around 465 CE, progressed quickly, and was carved deeper into the rock than the lower level.

The walls and door frames of both levels are delicately carved, showing images of mythical creatures like makaras, apsaras, elephants, and figures in welcoming gestures. The upper level includes a kneeling devotee at the Buddha’s feet, showing a form of worship practiced by the 5th century. The large Buddha statue in the shrine has an ornate throne but was rushed to completion in 477/478 CE, after the death of King Harisena. The shrine’s antechamber has an unfinished group of statues depicting the Six Buddhas of the Past, with only five completed. This idea may have been inspired by similar artwork in the Bagh Caves of Madhya Pradesh.

• The best-preserved painting in Cave 6: Buddha seated in dharma-chakra-mudra
• A painting showing Mahayana worship of the Buddha
• Buddha in the upper level, with deer below and apsaras above (using artificial lighting)
• Bhagwan Buddha

Cave 7

Cave 7 is a monastery measuring 15.55 meters by 31.25 meters and has only one floor. It includes a sanctum, a hall with octagonal pillars, and eight small rooms for monks. The Buddha in the sanctum is shown in a preaching posture. Many art panels inside the cave depict Buddhist stories, such as the Buddha with Nagamuchalinda and the Miracle of Sravasti.

Cave 7 has a grand entrance with two porticos. The veranda has eight pillars of two types. One type has an octagonal base with an amalaka and a lotus-shaped capital. The other type lacks a distinct base and has an octagonal shaft with a plain capital. The veranda opens into an antechamber. On the left side of the antechamber, there are 25 carved seated Buddhas in different postures and facial expressions. On the right side, there are 58 seated Buddha reliefs in various postures, all placed on lotus flowers. These sculptures represent the Miracle of Sravasti from Buddhist teachings. The bottom row shows two Nagas (serpents with hoods) holding a blooming lotus stalk. The antechamber leads to the sanctum through a door frame. On this frame, two females are carved standing on makaras (mythical sea creatures). Inside the sanctum, the Buddha sits on a lion throne in a cross-legged posture, surrounded by Bodhisattva figures, two attendants with chauris (fly-whisks), and flying apsaras above.

Cave 7 was not carved deeply into the cliff, possibly due to rock faults. It includes two porticos, a shrine room with an antechamber, and no central hall. Some cells were added. The artwork may have been revised and updated over time. The first version of the cave was completed around 469 CE. Additional Buddhas were added and painted a few years later, between 476 and 478 CE.

• Cave 7 plan (Robert Gill sketch, 1850)
• Cave 7: Buddhas on the antechamber left wall (James Burgess sketch, 1880)
• Buddhas on the antechamber's right wall
• The shallow corridor before the shrine

Cave 8

Cave 8 is an unfinished monastery measuring 15.24 meters by 24.64 meters. For many years in the 20th century, this cave was used as a storage and generator room. It is located at river level with easy access, lower than other caves. According to the Archaeological Survey of India, it may be one of the earliest monasteries. Much of the front is damaged, possibly due to a landslide. Excavation was difficult, and the cave was likely abandoned after a mineral layer caused problems for stable carvings.

Spink suggests that Cave 8 may be the earliest cave from the second period, with the shrine added later. According to Spink, it may be the oldest Mahayana monastery found in India. The statue may have been placed there rather than carved from the rock, but it is no longer present. The cave was painted, but only traces remain.

Cave 9

Caves 9 and 10 are two chaitya or worship halls built during the 2nd to 1st century BCE. This was the first period of construction. However, both caves were modified during the second period of construction, which ended in the 5th century CE.

Cave 9 (18.24 m × 8.04 m) is smaller than Cave 10 (30.5 m × 12.2 m), but has more complex features. Spink believes that Cave 10 may have been built in the 1st century BCE, while Cave 9 was built about 100 years later. Small shrines called caves 9A to 9D and 10A were built during the second period. These shrines were created by individuals. The arch of Cave 9 has remaining parts that suggest it may have once held wooden fittings.

The cave has an apsidal shape, with a central area (nave), a side passage (aisle), and an apse containing an icon. This design is similar to European cathedrals built centuries later. The aisle has 23 pillars. The ceiling is vaulted. A stupa sits at the center of the apse, placed on a high cylindrical base. A path for walking around the stupa surrounds it. On the left wall, people are shown approaching the stupa, indicating a tradition of devotion.

Spink states that the paintings in this cave, including the standing Buddhas on the pillars, were added in the 5th century. Above the pillars and behind the stupa are colorful paintings of the Buddha, with Padmapani and Vajrapani standing beside him. These figures wear jewels and necklaces. Yogis, citizens, and Buddhist monks are shown approaching the Buddha with garlands and offerings. Men wear dhoti and turbans. On the walls are friezes depicting Jataka tales, which likely date to the early Hinayana phase of construction. Some panels and reliefs inside and outside Cave 10 do not form clear stories but are connected to Buddhist legends. These may have been added by different monks and donors in the 5th century wherever space was available. The focus on devotion and the worship hall design likely led to the addition of four shrinelets (9A, 9B, 9C, and 9D) between Cave 9 and 10.

• Buddha statue on the porch of Cave 9
• The apsidal hall with a plain hemispherical stupa at the apse’s center
• Pillar paintings
• Cave 9: fresco with Buddhas in orange robes and protected by chatra umbrellas

Cave 10

Cave 10, a large prayer hall called a Chaitya, was built around the 1st century BCE, along with nearby vihara cave No. 12. These two caves are among the earliest in the Ajanta complex. The hall has a central apsidal shape with 39 octagonal pillars, a nave that separates the aisle and stupa at the end for worship. The stupa includes a pradakshina patha, a path for walking around it.

This cave is important because its size shows that Buddhism was influential in South Asia by the 1st century BCE and remained influential in India until the 5th century CE. The cave has inscriptions that describe parts of the cave as "gifts of prasada" given by individuals, suggesting the cave was supported by the community rather than a single ruler. Cave 10 is also historically important because in April 1819, a British Army officer named John Smith discovered its arch and shared this finding with the Western world.

Other caves in Western India were built around the same time with royal support. The order of early Chaitya Caves is believed to be: first, Cave 9 at Kondivite Caves, then Cave 12 at Bhaja Caves, both older than Cave 10 at Ajanta. After Cave 10, the order includes Cave 3 at Pitalkhora, Cave 1 at Kondana Caves, Cave 9 at Ajanta (with more detailed designs, possibly built about a century later), Cave 18 at Nasik Caves, and Cave 7 at Bedse Caves, ending with the "final perfection" of the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves.

Cave 10 has a Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script, an ancient writing system. This inscription is the oldest at Ajanta and is dated to about the 2nd century BCE. It reads:

— Inscription of Cave No. 10.

The paintings in Cave 10 include some from the early period, many from a later incomplete modernization effort, and many smaller images added later for religious purposes around 479–480 CE. These later images mostly avoided covering earlier paintings and were placed in less visible areas. There were likely over 300 such images, created by many artists. The paintings show stories from the Jataka tales in a clockwise order, with both Hinayana and Mahayana styles visible. The older Hinayana paintings are more faded. Notable stories include the Saddanta Jataka, about a six-tusked elephant, and the Shyama Jataka, about a man who cared for his blind parents. According to Stella Kramrisch, the oldest paintings in Cave 10 date to about 100 BCE and share artistic features with works from the same time at Sanchi and Amaravati.

• In 1839, the cave had a Buddha image wearing a long, heavy robe, a style inspired by Gandhara art.
• Later paintings show devotional figures on pillars and the ceiling.
• Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are painted on the arches.

Cave 11

Cave 11 is a monastery (19.87 × 17.35 m) built around 462 to 478. The cave's porch has pillars with round tops and square bases. The porch ceiling has signs of floral designs and worn carvings. Only the center section is clearly visible, showing the Buddha with people praying nearby. Inside, the cave has a hall with a long stone bench that leads to six rooms. Similar stone benches can also be found in the Nasik Caves. Another porch with pillars ends in a chamber with a seated Buddha beside an incomplete stupa, and includes four small rooms.

The cave contains a few paintings of Bodhisattvas and the Buddha. The best-preserved paintings include Padmapani, a group of people praying, a pair of peacocks, and a female figure. The chamber in this cave may be one of the last structures built at Ajanta because it includes a path for walking around the seated Buddha.

Cave 12

According to the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Cave 12 is an early Hinayana (Theravada) monastery measuring 14.9 meters by 17.82 meters. It was built between the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. However, Spink dates it to the 1st century BCE.

The cave is damaged, with its front wall completely collapsed. Inside, three sides of the cave have twelve cells. Each cell contains two stone beds.

Cave 13

Cave 13 is a small monastery from an early time. It has a hall with seven cells, and each cell contains two stone beds carved directly from the rock. These beds were made for monks to use. However, Gupte and Mahajan believe these caves were built about two to three centuries later than the ASI estimated, placing their construction between the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.

Cave 14

Cave 14 is an unfinished monastery that measures 13.43 meters by 19.28 meters. It is located above Cave 13. The entrance door frame has sala bhanjikas.

Cave 15

Cave 15 is a larger and more complete monastery, measuring 19.62 meters by 15.98 meters. Evidence suggests that it once had paintings. The cave includes a hall with eight small rooms, which leads to a small inner room, a room before the inner room, and a covered area with pillars. The carvings on the walls show images of the Buddha, and the Buddha in the inner room is depicted sitting in the Simhasana posture. The door frame of Cave 15 has carvings of pigeons eating grain.

Cave 15A

Cave 15A is the smallest cave with a hall and one cell on each side. Its entrance is located just to the right of the entrance to Cave 16, which is decorated with an elephant image. This cave is an ancient Hinayana cave with three cells that open around a very small central hall. The doors have a rail and arch design. A message written in an ancient script once existed in this cave, but it is no longer present.

• Cave 13
• Cave 14
• Cave 15
• Cave 15A
• Interior of cave 15A

Cave 16

Cave 16 is located in the center of the site and was built by Varahadeva, a minister who served King Harishena of the Vakataka dynasty (ruling around 475–500 CE). Varahadeva was a follower of Buddhism and dedicated the cave to monks. An inscription inside the cave expresses his hope that "the entire world may reach a peaceful and noble state free from sorrow and disease." It also shows his strong devotion to Buddhism, stating that he regarded the Buddha’s teachings as his only guide and was deeply committed to the Buddha, the teacher of the world. Scholars, including Spink, believe Varahadeva respected both the Buddha and Hindu gods, as an inscription in a nearby cave, Ghatotkacha Cave, mentions his Hindu background. The 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuan Zang described Cave 16 as the entrance to the site.

Cave 16 (19.5 m × 22.25 m × 4.6 m) played a key role in shaping the architecture of the entire site. Scholars like Spink call it the "crucial cave" because it helps determine the timeline of the site’s construction during its later stages. It is a Mahayana monastery with a standard layout: a main doorway, two windows, and two aisle doorways. The veranda measures 19.5 m × 3 m, and the main hall is nearly square, with each side measuring 19.5 m.

The cave contains many paintings. These include stories from Jataka tales, such as the Hasti, Mahaummagga, and Sutasoma fables. Other frescoes depict scenes like the conversion of Nanda, the miracle of Sravasti, Sujata’s offering, Asita’s visit, the dream of Maya, the Trapusha and Bhallika story, and the ploughing festival. The Hasti Jataka frescoes show a Bodhisattva elephant who sacrifices himself by jumping off a cliff to provide food for starving people. These paintings are located near the entrance, on the left side of the front corridor, and follow a clockwise direction.

The Mahaummagga Jataka frescoes are on the left wall of the corridor and tell the story of a young Bodhisattva. Nearby, the conversion of Nanda, the Buddha’s half-brother, is depicted. This scene shows one version of the Nanda story, where the Buddha takes Nanda to heaven and hell to demonstrate the dangers of a life focused on pleasure. After these paintings, the cave features images of Manushi Buddhas, people offering gifts to the Buddha, and the Buddha seated in a teaching posture with a dharma chakra mudra.

On the right wall of the corridor, scenes from the Buddha’s life are painted. These include Sujata offering food to the Buddha, Tapussa and Bhallika giving wheat and honey to the Buddha, the future Buddha sitting alone under a tree, and the Buddha at a ploughing festival. One mural shows the Buddha’s parents trying to stop him from becoming a monk. Another depicts the Buddha at the palace, surrounded by people in traditional clothing, as he sees the four signs that lead him to renounce worldly life. This side also includes a painting of the future Buddha as a baby with the sage Asita. Scholars note that some paintings in Cave 16 were left unfinished.

Key scenes in Cave 16 include:
– The conversion of Nanda, located on the left corridor.
– A palace scene fresco on the right corridor of Cave 16.
– A depiction of the Buddha receiving sweet milk-rice from Sujata during his ascetic stage.
– A painting of Manushi Buddhas in Cave 16.
– A scene showing a king paying homage to the Buddha.

Cave 17

Cave 17 (34.5 m × 25.63 m), along with Cave 16, which has two large stone elephants at the entrance, and Cave 26, which has a depiction of the sleeping Buddha, were built by the Hindu Vakataka prime minister Varahadeva. Cave 17 also received support from the local king Upendragupta, as noted in an inscription found inside the cave.

The cave features a large and highly advanced vihara (monastery) design, as well as some of the best-preserved and most famous paintings among all the caves. While Cave 16 shows scenes from the life of the Buddha, the paintings in Cave 17 are known for highlighting human virtues through stories from the Jataka tales. These paintings include detailed and realistic scenes, described by Stella Kramrisch as "lavish elegance," created by skilled artists. The artists used techniques such as showing wind moving through crops by drawing them in wavy lines, and they arranged scenes in rhythmic patterns to tell stories visually.

The monastery in Cave 17 includes a colonnaded porch, pillars with unique styles, a peristyle (a design with columns around the hall) for the interior, a shrine antechamber located deep within the cave, larger windows and doors for more light, and carvings of Indian gods and goddesses. The hall of the monastery is a square measuring 380.53 square meters (4,096.0 square feet) with 20 pillars. According to Spink, the large scale of the carvings caused some errors, such as removing too much rock, which made the cave widen toward the back.

Cave 17 has a long inscription by King Upendragupta, in which he states that he used a great amount of wealth to build the vihara, bringing happiness to devotees. Upendragupta is known to have sponsored at least five caves in Ajanta. However, he may have spent too much on religious projects, as he was later defeated by attacks from the Asmaka.

Cave 17 contains thirty major murals. The paintings show the Buddha in different forms and postures, including Vipasyi, Sikhi, Visvabhu, Krakuchchanda, Kanakamuni, Kashyapa, and Sakyamuni. Other scenes include Avalokitesvara, the story of Udayin and Gupta, the story of Nalagiri, the Wheel of Life, a panel of ancient Indian musicians, and a scene about Prince Simhala's journey to Sri Lanka. The frescoes also depict Jataka tales such as Shaddanta, Hasti, Hamsa, Vessantara, Sutasoma, Mahakapi (in two versions), Sarabhamiga, Machchha, Matiposaka, Shyama, Mahisha, Valahassa, Sibi, Ruru, and Nigrodamiga. These paintings reflect the culture and society of the early 1st millennium, showing scenes such as a shipwreck, a princess applying makeup, lovers, and a couple drinking wine. Some frescoes include key characters from Jataka tales, along with animals and attendants in the same scene.

• Vessantara Jataka: the story of the generous king Vessantara
• Shaddanta Jataka: a six-tusked elephant giving away his tusks
• Painting depicting "Darpana Sundari," a lady with a mirror
• The Buddha in Cave 17 sanctum
• Musician with Alapini Vina (far left), next to Indra

Cave 18

Cave 18 is a small rectangular area measuring 3.38 meters by 11.66 meters. It contains two pillars shaped like octagons and connects to another room. The purpose of this cave is not known.

Cave 19 (5th century CE)

Cave 19 is a worship hall (chaitya griha, 16.05 × 7.09 m) built in the fifth century CE. Inside, painted images of the Buddha are shown in different positions. Visitors now enter the hall through what was once a carved room. This suggests the original design included a courtyard for worshippers to gather, along with an entrance and facade, though these parts are no longer visible. Cave 19 is known for its sculptures, including Naga figures with a serpent canopy above the Buddha, similar to those in ancient Jain and Hindu traditions. It also features Yaksha dwarapala (guardian) statues on its arches, flying couples, seated and standing Buddhas, and evidence that its ceiling was once painted.

Cave 19 was influenced by the design of Cave 9. It differed from earlier Hinayana traditions by carving a Buddha into the stupa. Scholars believe this decision was made by someone of high rank in the 5th-century Mahayana Buddhist community, as the cave was built by a Hindu Shaivism dynasty. The cave’s excavation and stupa were likely completed by 467 CE, with artistic work continuing until around 470 CE. However, the cave remained unfinished when it was dedicated in 471 CE.

The entrance of Cave 19’s worship hall is decorated with two round pillars covered in floral patterns and carved garlands. These pillars support a porch with an inverted lotus capital connected to an amalaka. To the left is a standing Buddha in the varada hasta mudra, with a devotee bowing at his feet. To the right is a relief showing a woman holding a pitcher and touching her chin. Above is a seated Buddha in a meditating pose. Near the entrance, a "Mother and Child" sculpture shows the Buddha with a begging bowl, watched by his wife and son.

The worship hall is apsidal, with 15 pillars dividing it into two side aisles and one central nave. The round pillars have floral reliefs and fluted shafts topped with Buddha images in their capitals. Nearby, elephants, horses, and flying apsaras are carved, reflecting the Gupta Empire’s artistic style. Sharma notes that similarities to the Karla Caves’ Great Chaitya (built in the 2nd century CE) suggest Cave 19 may have been modeled after it.

The walls and ceilings of the side aisles inside the worship hall are covered with paintings. These depict the Buddha, flowers, and the "Mother and Child" legend again on the left aisle.

• Cave 19 was originally planned to have a courtyard and additional artwork.
• A Nagaraja figure is shown in the ardhaparyanka asana, with his wife holding a lotus and wearing a mangalasutra.
• The nave has 15 pillars with Buddha reliefs.
• Buddha paintings are found in the side aisle of Cave 19.

Cave 20

Cave 20 is a monastery hall (16.2 × 17.91 m) built in the 5th century. According to Spink, construction began in the 460s by King Upendragupta, who wished "to make the great tree of religious merit grow." Work on Cave 20 happened at the same time as other caves. Spink notes that Cave 20 has beautiful details, but it was not as important as Caves 17 and 19. Construction paused and then continued in the following decade.

The vihara includes a main room, four cells for monks, and a pillared verandah with two stone-cut windows for light. Before entering the main hall, two Buddhas are carved above the window and beside a side cell on the left of the verandah. Traces of old paintings remain on the ceiling of the main hall. The sanctum Buddha is shown in a preaching posture. The cave is known for a sculpture showing seven Buddhas with attendants on its lintel. The cave has a Sanskrit inscription written in Brahmi script in its verandah, and it is called a mandapa.

Many carvings and decorations in Cave 20 are similar to those in Cave 19, and somewhat similar to those in Cave 17. This may be because the same architects and artisans worked on all three caves. The door frames in Cave 20 are quasi-structural, a feature unique to the Ajanta site. Decorations in Cave 20 are also innovative, such as one showing the Buddha seated on two pillows with a richly laden mango tree behind him, as noted by Spink.

• The Buddha on Lion throne
• The sanctum has two Nagarajas on the side as guardians.

Cave 21

Cave 21 is a large hall (29.56 meters by 28.03 meters) that includes twelve rooms carved into the rock for monks, a sacred area, and twelve verandahs with pillars and decorative columns. The columns have carvings of animals and flowers. The pillars show images of celestial dancers, a king and queen, and people bowing with a hand gesture of respect. The hall has signs that it was once fully painted. In the sacred area, a statue of the Buddha is shown in a teaching position.

Cave 22

Cave 22 is a small monastic chamber measuring 12.72 meters by 11.58 meters. It has a narrow veranda and four unfinished cells. The cave is located at a higher level and can only be reached by climbing a set of steps. Inside, the Buddha is shown seated in a specific posture called pralamba-padasana. Painted figures in Cave 22 include depictions of Manushi-Buddhas and Maitreya. A pillar on the left side of the veranda has a Sanskrit inscription written in prose. Parts of the inscription are damaged, but the readable sections describe it as "a meritorious gift of a mandapa by Jayata." The text also refers to Jayata's family as "a great Upasaka" and ends with the phrase, "may the merit of this be for excellent knowledge to all sentient beings, beginning with father and mother."

Cave 23

Cave 23 is also unfinished and has a hall that measures 28.32 by 22.52 meters. The design of this cave is similar to Cave 21. However, Cave 23 is different in its pillar decorations and the presence of naga doorkeepers.

Cave 24

Cave 24 is similar to Cave 21, but it is much larger and also unfinished. It contains the second-largest monastery hall at the site, measuring 29.3 meters by 29.3 meters, after Cave 4. Scholars have studied Cave 24 closely because it shows how different groups of workers completed their tasks at the same time. Construction of rooms began as soon as the main aisle was dug, while the main hall and inner chamber were still being built. The planning for Cave 24 started in 467 CE, but work likely began in 475 CE with support from a monk named Buddhabhadra. However, construction stopped suddenly in 477 CE after the king who funded the project, Harisena, died. This cave is important because it has one of the most detailed pillar capitals at the Ajanta site, showing how skilled the artists became while working with the rock. In the central panel of the right center porch pillar, artists carved 14 small, detailed figures while working in low light inside a narrow space. The decorative carvings in Cave 24 include scenes of people and human-like figures, unlike the flower designs seen in earlier parts of the site. The inner chamber of Cave 24 contains a seated Buddha in a specific posture called pralamba-padasana.

Cave 25

Cave 25 is a monastery. Its hall (11.37 meters by 12.24 meters) is similar to other monasteries, but it does not have a sanctum, includes an enclosed courtyard, and is excavated at an upper level.

• A statue of the Buddha in Cave 21
• Cave 22: has an inside hall
• Cave 23: has an inside hall
• Complex pillars in Cave 24 with carvings of couples in loving positions; shows that workers were doing similar tasks at the same time.

Cave 26 (5th century CE)

Cave 26 is a worship hall (chaityagriha, 25.34 × 11.52 m) that has a similar layout to Cave 19. It is much larger and includes features found in vihara-style caves. An inscription explains that a monk named Buddhabhadra and his friend, who served a king of Asmaka, donated this cave. The inscription includes a vision statement and a goal to create "a memorial on the mountain that will endure for as long as the moon and the sun continue," as translated by Walter Spink. It is likely that the builders focused on stone sculptures rather than wall paintings in Cave 26 because they believed stone would last longer than paintings.

The sculptures in Cave 26 are detailed and more complex than those in other caves. It is among the last caves to be excavated, and an inscription suggests it was created in the late 5th or early 6th century, according to the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The cave has an apsidal hall with side aisles for circumambulation (pradikshana). These paths are decorated with carved Buddhist stories, including three scenes of the Miracle of Sravasti on the right aisle and seated Buddhas in various mudras. Many of these carvings were added later by worshippers and may not have been part of the original design. The artwork begins on the wall of the aisle, immediately to the left of the entrance. Key artworks include the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha (a reclining Buddha) on the wall, followed by the story of the "Temptations by Mara." This scene shows Mara’s daughters, depicted in modest clothing, attempting to seduce the meditating Buddha. On both sides of the Buddha, armies of Mara try to distract him with noise and threats. In the top right corner, Mara is shown frustrated after failing to disturb the Buddha.

At the center of the apse is a rock-cut stupa. The stupa has a carved image of the Buddha on its front, 18 panels on its base, 18 panels above these, a three-tiered torana above the Buddha, and apsaras carved on the anda (hemispherical part) of the stupa. A nine-tiered harmika sits on top of the stupa, symbolizing the nine heavens of saṃsāra in Mahayana cosmology. The walls, pillars, brackets, and triforium are heavily decorated with Buddhist themes. Many of the wall reliefs and images in this cave were damaged and have since been restored as part of conservation efforts.

Between Cave 26 and its left wing, there is an inscription by a courtier of Rashtrakuta Nanaraj, mentioned in the Multai and Sangaloda plates. This inscription dates to the late 7th or early 8th century and is the last known inscription at Ajanta.

• Cave 26’s plan as completed. The etchings suggest the original design was more ambitious.
• The sculpted stupa (dagoba) in the worship hall has 36 carved panels.
• The "Temptation of the Buddha" scene shows Mara’s daughters below the Buddha, trying to seduce him. Mara is depicted in the top right corner.
• On the left aisle wall of Cave 26, the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha (Dying Buddha) is carved.

Cave 27

Cave 27 is a monastery. It may have been built as an add-on to Cave 26. The two floors are damaged. The upper floor is partially collapsed. Its layout is similar to other monasteries.

Cave 28

Cave 28 is a monastery that was not completed. It is only partially dug out and is located at the farthest western part of the Ajanta complex. This cave is hard to reach.

Cave 29

Cave 29 is an unfinished monastery located at the highest level of the Ajanta complex. It was apparently not noticed when the initial numbering system was created. The cave is physically positioned between Caves 20 and 21.

Cave 30

In 1956, a landslide blocked the path to Cave 16. Workers clearing the area found a small opening and a votive stupa in the debris near the stream bed. Further digging uncovered a previously unknown Hinayana monastery cave, dating back to the 2nd and 1st century BCE. Cave 30 may be the oldest cave in the Ajanta complex. It measures 3.66 meters by 3.66 meters and has three cells. Each cell contains two stone beds and stone pillows. The door lintels of the cells have carvings of lotus flowers and garlands. The cave has two inscriptions written in an unknown script. It also features a platform on its veranda, offering a view of the river ravine below and the surrounding forest. According to Gupte and Mahajan, this cave may have been sealed at one time using large, carefully carved stones to avoid blocking the view of Cave 16.

Other infrastructure

Over 80% of the Ajanta caves were vihara, which are temporary homes for travelers and monasteries. The people who built the caves included places to collect donations and store grains and food for visitors and monks. Many caves have large storage areas carved into the floor. Spink notes that the largest storage spaces are in the "large spaces within the shrines of Ajanta Cave Lower 6 and Cave 11." These caves were likely chosen because they were easier to access and safer due to their higher position. The decision to build covered vaults in the floor may have been to provide sleeping areas.

Recent excavations

A burnt-brick monastery called a vihara, located on the right bank of the river Waghora, was recently uncovered. The monastery has several small rooms that open into a central courtyard where a stupa was built. During the excavation, a coin from the Western Satraps ruler Visvasena, who ruled from 293 to 304 CE, and a gold coin from the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II, who ruled from 402 to 450 CE, were found. These coins provide evidence to help determine the age of the caves. A terracotta plaque showing the Hindu goddess Mahishasuramardini was also discovered, which may have been worshipped by the people who built the monastery.

• Buddhist monastery cell structure at the recently uncovered brick vihara at Ajanta
• Coin from Western Satrap Visvasena (293–304), found during the monastery excavation
• Coin from Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II (402–450), found during the monastery excavation
• Terracotta plaque of Hindu goddess Mahishasuramardini discovered at the site

Copies of the paintings

The paintings have gotten worse over time since they were found again, and many 19th-century copies and drawings are important for fully understanding the original works. In the 19th century, people began making copies of the Ajanta paintings for European and Japanese museums. Some of these copies were later lost in natural disasters and fires. For example, in 1846, Major Robert Gill, an Army officer from the Madras Presidency and a painter, was chosen by the Royal Asiatic Society to copy the frescoes on the cave walls. Gill worked at the site from 1844 to 1863 and made 27 copies of large mural sections. However, all but four were destroyed in a fire at the Crystal Palace in London in 1866, where they were displayed. Gill returned to the site and continued his work until his death in 1875.

In 1872, the Bombay Presidency asked John Griffiths to make copies of Ajanta paintings with his students for shipping to England. They worked on this for thirteen years and created about 300 paintings. Many were displayed at the Imperial Institute in London, a precursor to the Victoria and Albert Museum. In 1885, a fire destroyed over 100 paintings stored in a museum wing. The Victoria and Albert Museum still has 166 paintings from both sets, but none have been on permanent display since 1955. The largest paintings are about 3 by 6 meters (9.8 feet by 19.7 feet). A conservation project was done on about half of them in 2006, involving the University of Northumbria. Griffith and his students used "cheap varnish" on some paintings, which worsened the condition of the originals. Recent cleaning by the ASI has also contributed to their deterioration, according to Spink and others.

Another set of copies was made between 1909 and 1911 by Christiana Herringham and students from the Calcutta School of Art, including future painter Nandalal Bose. These copies were published in full color by London's India Society, which was newly formed. Unlike earlier copies, these aimed to restore damaged areas to recreate the original condition rather than record the current state. These copies had an "Indian Renascence" style, different from the British Victorian styles used by earlier artists like Griffiths and Gill.

Early photographs of the Ajanta paintings were taken by Robert Gill, including some using stereoscopy. These photos were used in books by Gill and Fergusson, and many are available online from the British Library. Later, Victor Goloubew took photos in 1911, and E.L. Vassey photographed the caves for a four-volume study by Ghulam Yazdani, published between 1930 and 1955.

Some creative copies of Ajanta frescoes, like the painting of the Adoration of the Buddha from Cave 17, were made for the Albert Hall Museum in Jaipur, India. Thomas Holbein Hendley commissioned this work, painted by a local artist named Murli or Murali. The museum opened to the public in 1887, and this artwork reflects the style of the late 19th century.

Another effort to copy the murals was made by Japanese artist Arai Kampō after he was invited by Rabindranath Tagore to teach in India. Arai made copies using tracings on Japanese paper from 1916 to 1918. His work was stored at Tokyo Imperial University but was destroyed during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.

Reception history

The Ajanta cave arts show the culture, society, and religious beliefs of people in India from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. Scholars have studied them from different areas, such as gender studies, history, sociology, and the anthropology of South Asia. The clothing, jewelry, relationships between men and women, and daily activities shown in the art reveal the lifestyles of royalty and the wealthy, as well as the clothing of common people, monks, and religious leaders. These paintings give important information about life in India around the middle of the first millennium CE.

The Ajanta paintings show a contrast between the spiritual lives of monks, who lived without material possessions, and the luxurious, worldly lives of others. Many frescoes show scenes from markets, festivals, processions with entertainers, palaces, and performance areas. These images share similar themes and details found in other ancient Indian sites, such as Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati, Ellora, Bagh, Aihole, and Badami. The Ajanta caves help people understand the visual and descriptive aspects of ancient and early medieval Indian culture, especially during the Gupta Empire period.

In the early 19th century, Europeans who first visited the Ajanta caves had no written records to help them understand what they saw. They focused mainly on scenes of hunting, daily life, royal courts, elephants, horses, and statues they called "Buddha" because of the curly hair. Early descriptions of the Ajanta caves by Europeans were influenced by their own ideas and lacked knowledge of Indian traditions, such as the Jataka Tales. They misunderstood the art, calling it strange or without clear meaning. These interpretations were shaped by European colonial views and did not fully understand the cultural context.

For people unfamiliar with Indian religions, especially Buddhism, the Ajanta caves may seem like just another example of religious art. However, to many Indians and Buddhists, the caves represent a perfect blend of spiritual and worldly life. According to Walter Spink, a respected art historian, the Ajanta caves were a highly respected site in India by 475 CE, visited by travelers, pilgrims, monks, and traders. The caves were transformed into their current form in about 20 years, from 460 CE to 480 CE, by local architects and artists. Spink calls this achievement one of the greatest creative works in human history.

The Ajanta cave paintings provide important information about the social and economic life of ancient India, especially the interactions between India and other cultures in the 5th century CE. Indian historian Haroon Khan Sherwani notes that the paintings show the diverse nature of Buddhism, which welcomed people from many backgrounds, including Greeks, Persians, Sakas, Pahlavas, Kushans, and Hunas. Many paintings include images of foreigners, such as those in the "Persian Embassy Scene" in Cave 1.

In Cave 1, a mural shows people with foreign clothing or faces, known as the "Persian Embassy Scene." This painting was once thought to depict a Persian ambassador visiting a Hindu king in 625 CE. However, scholars now believe it is part of a Jataka tale, showing the Buddha in a previous life as a king. The painting also reflects trade between India and distant regions, such as the Sassanian Empire in the Near East.

Cave 1 and Cave 17 contain many images of foreigners, suggesting that 5th-century India was a multicultural and economically active region involved in international trade. The use of blue lapis lazuli, a pigment imported from Afghanistan or Iran, in the paintings shows connections to trade networks. These images also suggest that Buddhist monasteries were linked to trading groups and royal courts. Some scenes show foreigners drinking wine, and others depict foreign kings with their attendants. These details indicate that textiles and gems were major exports from India, sent through the Red Sea and later the Persian Gulf.

Scholars agree that the Ajanta paintings show trade and cultural links between India and the Sassanian Empire in the West. However, interpretations of specific details, such as the meaning of ships and jars in the paintings, vary. Some believe the jars hold wine, while others think they contain water. In Cave 17, a painting of the Buddha descending from heaven shows many foreigners listening to his teachings. These people are shown with different clothing, hairstyles, and skin tones, reflecting the diversity of the time. In another painting, a servant from Central Asia is shown with a foreign metal container, and a dark-skinned servant offers a cup to a couple. In another scene, a man from northeast Africa appears as a servant. These images show the wide range of people involved in trade and cultural exchange in ancient India.

Impact on later painting and other arts

The Ajanta paintings, or the style they represent, had an impact on painting traditions in Tibet and Sri Lanka. Similar artistic influences have also been noticed in the Kizil Caves of the Tarim Basin, especially in early caves like the Peacock Cave.

When ancient Indian paintings at Ajanta were found again, Indian artists had examples from ancient India to study. Nandalal Bose tried different methods to copy the ancient style, which helped him create his own unique style. Abanindranath Tagore and Syed Thajudeen also used Ajanta paintings as a source of inspiration for their work.

Anna Pavlova’s ballet, Ajanta’s Frescoes, was inspired by her visit to Ajanta. The dance was choreographed by Ivan Clustine, and the music was composed by Nikolai Tcherepnin (some sources mention Mikhail Fokine in 1923). The ballet premiered at Covent Garden in 1923.

Jewish American poet Muriel Rukeyser wrote about the caves in the poem “Ajanta,” which is the first poem in her third collection, Beast in View (1944). Rukeyser was influenced by writings about the caves by artist Mukul Dey in 1925 and art historian Stella Kramrisch in 1937.